§  They would grow most food on terraces

§  Potatoes, tomatoes, corn, bananas, cantaloupe, pumpkins, tobacco, and many other squash

§  Lunar calendar was also used for agriculture (months were Quillas).

§  Only used the time for agriculture purposes, Morning, noon and night.

§  The acts of sowing, tilling, and harvesting, were for the Inca acts of worship in which the entire community joined (Fussell 104 [Cobo])

§  Tilled in August, planted in September, harvested in May (Fussell 103 [de la Vega])

§  Yanca allyu were responsible for plowering (Fussell 103 [de la Ayala])

§  When it came to sowing or cultivating the fields, all other tasks stopped. If there were war or other kind of emergency, men from neighboring allyus did the tilling for them. (Fussel 105 [Cobo, de la Vega])

§  Corn was a major unit of currency. Andean women would exchange raw or cooked foods for cornbread or for kernels of corn (Fussell 105 [Cobo])

§  Chuño and moraya, two different forms of freeze dried potatoes are produced in the zone above 4000m along with Stipa ichu, the basic food crop and pasture food for llamas and alpaca.

§  Grown throughout Sierras, especially prominate in low valleys, such as in Quito Plateau.

§  Uses were to make sandals and cords, humble grade of clothing.

§  You could make Tsaur Mishki, a sweet juice, from it. If you allowed it to ferment, it would create warapu. 

§  The root creates a slow burning firewood. 

§  Coca was grown throughout the empire. In the north, it was grown among the Yumbos, but in very specific places, primarily, cordillera-cutting transverse river canyons. Also, among the Quijos amazonia. (Salomon 90)

§  Coca cultivation was always political: in the hands of the powerful, and favors were expected from the lower castes in order to have a part of it. 

§  In the north, coca was grown among the Yumbos, but in very specific places, primarily, cordillera-cutting transverse river canyons. Also, among the Quijos amazonia. (Salomon 90)

§  Sites of cotton production in Quito valley were Guayllabamba and its tributaries, espcially the Cachillacta-Gualea area. Seems that the cotton was brought in fiber form to the sierras. 

• Maize was domesticated in Mexico (103)
• Maize arrived in highlands Peru around 4000BP (Linda)
• First at of the inca with annexed land was to take 1/3 of it, that which was suitable for maize growing, which was usually the least ideal land.
• They new how to fertilize the ground and water them so allowing the maize field to remain faollow was rare. (Garcilaso)
• The Inca ploweed in August, planted in September, and harvested in May. (Fussell 103)
• The Inca would himself would dig the first hole with a plow of gold. (Fussell 103)
• The first week of planting was a time of great festivity.
• The lords set the rhythm of their plower to songs that played with military and sexual puns. They would cry their victory cry when they furrowed the earth. (Fussell 103)
• At harvest time they turned the aturing of corn into a puberty rite for their young knights, dressig them in parrot feathers and ear plugs, kilts and breech louts, and alloing them alone to harvest this field of sacred corn. They would cry their victory cry “hailli” (Hallelujah). (103)
• Bottom of the social class were the plowmen, yanca allyu. (Fussell 103).
• There is a chance that the Villac Umu, or another high up priest from Coricancha would dictate the song that set the plowing rhythm (Fussell 104)
• Pisac was, and still is, famed for its large kernal maize (Fussell 104)
• Maize began to play a significant role about 850BC (Bray, Goldstein 146)
• Inca brought maize to many places that didn’t have it before. It was a clear mark of the Inca (Bray, Goldstein 148)
• Chicha
• No one drinks chicha without pouring a little bit to the earth, or Mama Sara, the corn goddess (Fussell 249)
• The women take a quantiity of grain that seems to thems ufficient, they grind it, put it in water in some large jars, and once it is sufficiently soft, take a little and hand it over to some other women who puts it into her mouth and gradually cews it. Then, with an effort they almost cough it out upon a leaf or platter and throw it inot the jar with the other mixture. It is then boiled for three or four hours after which it is taken off of the fire and left to cool. It si poured through a cloth and is then kept to ferment. (Fussell 250 [Benzoni]).
• Only young girls could grind maize and made small little maize balls the night before any festival.(Fussell 297)
• When the Sapa inca broke his fast at dawn on Inti Raymi, he greeted the sun and poured the sacred beer from the vessel in his right hand into a a gold temple of the sun so that “it disappeared as thogh the sun had really drunk it.” The inca drank from the other vessel, then divided the rest among the gold goblets of his nobles. (Fussell 297 [Garcilaso])

§  Incas ate a lot of maize, and spread their dietary habits upon the conquered….makes because of the Qollqas

§  Corn was the most highly esteemed crop in the Andes (Bray 97)

§  Lots of Maize throughout empire. Incas spread their dietary habits with their empire

§  Maize was the primary sustenance in the north, while tubers were in the south of the empire.

§  Large scale maize production was not possible with out the building of major public words

§  -Plantations of Maize and Cotton in northern Peru

§  Each 100 meters increase of altitude, delays maize harvest about 2 weeks.

§  Maize keeps good for about 6-8 months in drier weather so the indians would hang it (just as they do nowadays) or smoke it. They would also dehydrate it, but not a favorite because it sacrifices taste. 

§  Chuchuka lightly toasted maize “that are halfway between tender and ripe (kau) and then sun-dry them; the produce is called chuchuka” (Salomon 74).

§  Gifts of maize among those in your social circle was typically cooked (like when you bring food to a friend nowadays), but for general charity, or to an unknown receiver, it was typically raw (just like nowadays when we donate food). (Salomon 80). 

§  No class distinction among maize. Gifts could be received from above or below. It was always regarded the same. The power, among leaders, could be said to be power over maize. (Salomon 80).

§  Maize originated from Mexico, and was popularized in the Andes by the Inkas (Reader 57)

§  Maize displaced tubers at lower elevations, typically lower thatn 2500m. (Reader 57).

§  Pedro Cieza de Leon states that 100 bushes of Maize was produced for each bushel sown. They put two sardine heads witih the maize in the same hole. (Reader 69) 

§  In Quito Different Varieties of maize and optimal cultivation elevation: sabanero (2660m), chillo (2520m), morochon (2410), and cuzco sabano (alt not given. Chillo was very esteemed. (Salomon 75)

§  In Quito the maize year began in October, just before the first rains: “From October until March it is winter, and usually rains in these months, except for fifteen or twenty days before Christmas, and as many again afterward becase at that time there is usually a warm spell about 30 or 40 days.” (Salomon 75)

§  “They cultivate…maize on raised fields, with a little over a foot between one, and another a hole is made with a finger, throwing two grains of maize and one of beans into it, when they wish to sow. The beans as they grow, cling to and wind around the maize stalks and thus they become strong enough to get off the ground. The idians sow potatoes in their plots as well as maize, but separately from the maize. They always keep their plots very neatly weeded and clean, with the earth well softened, which is the reason they produce more and better. Maize is sown in such a way that one cluster is about a foot from another.” (Solomon 74)

§  Lots of Maize (Salomon, 50)

§  Maize was primary crop, and grew in ratios of up to 1:30. (Salomon, 50), but they also grew tubers, melons (zambos), and beans for their own substance. (Salomon 52)

§   

§  Morays, multi-leveled terraces provided a mixed environment to grow whatever was needed in the same spot. Bugs couldn’t thrive, they were reliable, and could grow plants that wouldn’t otherwise grow in the region.

§  Morays were a huge architectural advantage incas had

§  Ayacho

§  Taclla, a spade-like foot plough with a narrow blade and a handle set low on the shaft to ease the job of lifting and turning heavy soil. Techonology spread by the Inka. (Reader 9)

§  Tihuanacu: allwed livestock to feed on stubble grouth of newly harvested fields and thus provided manure. They planted their crops on ridges one meter or more high and 3-5 meters wide with ditches between. The ridges were set typically in a pattern of 10 or more. The ditches were open-ended netierh closed off such as might serve to keep water in or out nore forming a network typical of drainage or irrigation systems. Upwards of 500km2 were ridged at such. Raised fields kept land frost free when water was kept at depth. Quiona and kañihua yields were four to eight times higher on the ridges then the flat lands. Potato yiedls were 10.6 tonnes per hecacre compared to regional average of 1.6-6tonnes. This method was not reintroduced with the Inkas (Reader 54, 57)

§  Tubers were in the south of the empire whereas maize was the primary sustenance in the north, 

§  Other tubers (root veggies) that were common: mashua, ulluco, melloco, ocaarracacha, yacón, mauka, achira, ahipa, and maca. (Reader 36)

§  Ocas, like potatoes, are native to the cold heights of the puno. They could be eaten raw, roasted or boiled. (Bray 99)

§  Ullucu was valued for its medicinal properties. It was usually boiled to produce a decoration that was taken for relief of stomach and labor pains. (Bray 99)

§  Sweet potatos were roasted like a fruit, stewed, fried or made into preserve. (Bray 99).

§  Peanuts, although not technically a tuber, were usually eaten toasted. (Bray 99)

§  Typical harvesting time is in May (Reader 4)

§  Domesticated 6000BC (Reader 4)

§  Around 400 distinct varieties of potatoes are grown in the Andes (Reader 4).

§  Potatoes are split into 3 groups. 1) Papamaway Those that grow between 3000 and 3500 meters where rainfall and temperature are congenial. 2) Papa Puna are grown between 3500 and 4000 meters. And 3) Papa ruki are grown above 4000 meters. They are frost resistant. (Reader 4)

§  The potatoes comes in a side variety of shapes and colors, long, thin, short, fat, conical, round, kidney-shaped, coiled, concertina and all sorts of colors and pattersn including spotted, striped, splashed, spectacled, and stipled. (Reader 5)

§  5-6 tons per hectacre in modern times [however, it seems the same practices are used as pre-colombian.] (Reader 6)

§  Long fallow periods for the fields was the norm, at least in Potosi. (Reader 14)

§  A human can live on potatoes with a little butter for months and stay in perfect health; however, it has to be a LOT of potatoes (Reader 22).

§  Andean ‘potatoes’ are not the true potatoes, such a name belongs to the sweet potatoes of the Caribbean and derived from “batato.” The Andean people referred to their tuber as ‘papas.’ (reader 23).

§  To plant a sweet potato you place a pieces of the stem (or vine) that go in the ground, complete with the nodes from which the plant will produce another generation of leaves, stems and roots. (Reader 23)

§  Since tubers are technically not a root (it’s more like a modified stem), they do not rot for long periods underground. Sweet potatoes, which are part of the root, quickly rot. (Reader 23)

§  Glycoalkaloids that are found in wild potatoes are absorbed by clay in the digestive tract if eaten together. (Reader 38)

§  Freeze dried potatoes are called chuño and are hard and chalk like. It is free of any toxin.

§  Production chuño is done by exposing the potatoes to three for four nights of freezing temptatures, while keeping the covered during the day to avoid the darkening caused by direct sunlight. Then soaking them in pits or a streambed with cold running water for up to thirty days. After that, they are again put out to freeze at night and the next day walked on to remove the peel and squeeze out most of their water content. When that is finished, the tubers are spread out in direct sunlight for ten to fifteen days by which tie they are almost completely dehydrated. Rubbing them together removes any remaining skin and leaves it with is chalky white characteristics. (Reader 38)

§  The moche civilization was reliant on potatoes, as seen from their ceramics. They could not cultivate potatoes and must have imported them from higher elevations. Their collapse coincides with the rise of Tihuanacu, which grew many potatoes. Reader hypothesizes that the people of Tihuanacu were responsible for the collapse of Moche be stemming the export of potatoes. (Reader 53).

§  Tihuanacu people were the exports at potato cultivation. Likely taught the Inkas.

§  Juan de Castellanos was the first to describe the potato to Europeans: spherical roots which are sown and produce a tstem with its brances and leaves, and some flowers, although few, of a soft purple colour; and to the root of this same plant, which is about three palms high, they are attached under the earth, and are the size of an egg more or less, some round and some elongated; they are white and purple and yellow, floury roots of good flavor a delicacy to the Indians and a dainty dish even for the Spaniards (Reader 68).

§  Pedro Cieza de Leon was the first to identify it by its name.

§  Columbus encountered sweet potatoes on his first voyage (Reader 78)

Chuño: Type of freeze dried potato.

Charqui: Jerkey

Sara: maize/corn

Chaquitaqlla: Incan foot plow

§  Upon entering it would be a huge plaza where it was the life of the city. The walls were very bright colors (source?)

§  The colors of rooms inidcates who’s allowed there. Red is locals, White is moderate, and Yellow is for elites (where? Source?)

§  such as competitiveness, ambitions, social pressure etc.

§  Thatched roofs of the Incas: “Outside coating consists of a layer of grass (Stypa Ychu: Kunth) two feet thick, placed in very regular rows and most carefully finished so as to present a smooth surface to the weather. next there is a thick layer of the same grass placed horizontally and netted together with reeds, and finally, an inner perpendicular layer:—the whole thatch being five feet thick, and finished with most admirable neatness. (Cieza de Leon footnote p. 180)

·  The stones were roughcut to the approximate shape in the quarries using river cobbles. They were then dragged by ropeto the construction site, a feat that sometimes required hundreds of men. The stones were shaped into their final form at the building site then laid in place. (Bauer 103)

·  The work was overseen by the Inca, but was taken under by mit’a.

·  The ropes used to tow the stones were incredible and made of leather and hemp. (Bauer 103)

·  Of the 12,000 men that worked at the stone quary of Sacsayhuman 4000 quarried and cut stones, 6000 hauled them with great cables of leather and hemp, the rest dug the ditch and laid the foundations. Others still cut poles and beams for timbers. (Bower 103 [Cieza de Leon])

·  Long and complex ramps were used within the stone quarries since they were usually in river canyons. More ramps were used to move the blocks to the height required at the construction sites. After the construction was complete the ramps were removed. (Bauer 104 [Cobo])

·   

§  Coastal buildings had pictorial elements, fish, plants, birds, as decorations along their walls. In cusco it was more plain with colors and gold trimmings

§  Colqas were a sign of the empires power, and the stability they offered. 

§  -The incas were masters of landscape architecture 

§  Homes: “In the second or back room of the house they have their pantry, full of big pots, and small ones, some on the top of the ground, others buried in earth as vats for straining and preparing their wines. In this place they have great crowds of cuyes, which we call guinea pigs, and this is where they feed them with quantities of grass; and the amount of their droppings, together with the grass that covers it, is such that the smell is unbearable. [1575].

§  Houses were low, windowless, and thatched adobe.  (Reader 14)

§  In NW Ecuador the Yumbas people made monuments at the top of prominant hills, called tolas. They were essentially an ellongation of the hill. (Source)

Chullpa: small house constructed for the dead

Pucara: fort, especially ones built in the highlands

Ushnu: stage like structures on each center of administrative cities

Cancha: several small houses grouped together within one wall.

§  Kallankas, were pretty much Inca hotels spread throughout the empire. They were also used as the community gather place. (Lescano)

§  They opened up to courtyards in the administrative centers and villages. (Lescano)

§  Rectangular elongated buildings

§  Gable roof.

§  Interior usually without divisions (continuous space).

§  Presence of internal posts or columns to support the roof (in the case of large structures).

§  Presence of gables.

§  Several doors placed at intervals on one of the long walls facing the square.

§  The formal homogeneity that seems to reflect this architectural category is, however, apparent, since rectangular structures of very varied dimensions have been identified as ranging from 17 to 105 m in length (Lescano)

§  Many artisans were moved from Chimor to Cusco upon their annexation, likely cuz Cusco desired to be more magnificant. (Rostw. 152)

§  Only in the highlands were entire allyus skilled at one art but on the coast they were fulltime individuals who did no other thing than their craft (Rostw 163)

§  Craftspeople did not do any agricultural activity nor war mita.

§  On the coast craftsmen worked for their ethnic lords, but could trade their surpluss…unclear if that was permitted with the Inkas. Rostw 163

§  Groups of craftsmen were sent to Cusco and other administrative centers to work. Rostw 163

§  Silver and gold smiths were greatest in demand.

§  Most crafts people came from Ica, Chincha, Pachacamac, Chimu or Hunacavilca.

§  The craftsmen were moved to Zurite, near Cusco.

§  Different kinds of craftmen salt makers, rope makers for each different task (inc. entangling deer), potters, litters, and weavers (cumbicamayoc)

§  T

See separate Civil war file for timeline.

§  Worst of the war was 1531-32

§  In addition to G de La Vega’s account, see Cieza de Leon, Travels in Peru, page 272 onward.

§  The regional strives on the coast took precedent over the war between brothers.

§  Puna' had an economic significance transcending that of the conflict of two tribal groups. Puna formed the northern salient of the domain bequeathed to Huascar by Huayna Capac (Cieza de Lean (lib. i, cAp. liv; and lib. ii, cAp. lxv).

§  Challcuchima, was a military genius who was never defeated in battle. In a six-month campaign, this general destroyed Huascar s armies one after another, finally capturing Huascar himself (Rowe)

§  Ynclahualpec was the 4th general of Atahualpa’s. (Cieza de Leon, 272)

§  Atoco is the one that captured Atahualpa (Cieza de Leon 273)

§  The death of HC was only proclaimed once Huascar had taken the fringe and then it was announced all should follow him.

§  All Apos used it (Poma)

Pizarro was given two young boys, one of whom, Felipillo, later served as interpreter, after accompanying Pizarro to Europe in 1529 (Kubler)

An emissary was sent by Huayna to view the foreigners; he dined on shipboard, and was given a steel knife and some baubles of glass and chalcedon

There was freguent communication between the spaniards and both brothers before they ascended into the highlands.

Drawing Pizarro into the midst of his men, and away from the sea which is where their home was (at least that’s what Atahualpa figured) the advantage was such in his favor that he was contented. He also secured a strong alience with the chief of Chincha (why would it mean so much to the chief of Chincha to be with them, unless the Spanish had a reputation so much that the Chief would give his allegiance for the opportunity of meerly seeing them. That says a lot both about the diplomatic tools that the Inka could use, as well as what seeing meant to the Andean cultures).

The Europeans were striking, in the first place, because of the great physical differences among them; they wore red or black beards,36 and the differences of skin color between the whites and the Negroes created a deep impression. The ability of the Euro peans to communicate with one another by means of "painted sheets" was surprising, especially when the Indians' names were spoken from such inanimate papers. The horses were thought to have feet of silver, and the firearms were regarded as animate thunderbolts, as in Tdmbez, where the chief poured libations of chicha into the barrel of Candia's weapon. Spaniards were ineffective when dismounted, and that the horses were powerless at night without their saddles.37 Ata hualpa received advices that the swords were no more dangerous than women's weaving battens,38 and he was told that the fire arms were capable of firing only two shots.39 These reports were possible only because the Spaniards had never been forced to deliver their full striking power, and Atahualpa governed his reception of the Spaniards by such fragmentary information. Thus his belief that the horses were useless at night determined his procrastinated entry into Cajamarca at dusk on the evening of November 16, instead of at noon, as Pizarro had been led to expect. (Kubler).

of the losing side, who had supported his brother Hu?scar, asked the Spaniards for help. The Spaniards demanded submission as the price of the alliance, and the losers were so desperate that they agreed. (Rowe)

§  Pizarro carried with him two goblets made of venetian glass to send ahead of himself as an introductory gift to Atahualpa (Reader 72).

§  Spanish did not enjoy new world food, always preferring their own (Reader 67)

§  At Cajamarca Pizarro and his men subsisted on guinea pig, llama meat, maize, potatoes and chicha.

§  At Tumbez Pizarro and his men may have resorted to eating potatoes.

·  One of Fransisco Pizarro’s assassins (Calancha P. 23)

·  One of Manco’s assassins (Calancha P. 23)

·  Murderer of Diego de Almagro the Younger (Calancha P. 23)

·  One of the 100+ men at Cajamarca (Leon Guerrero, n.d.)

·  An Almagrist (Calancha P. 24)

·  Titu’s Cusi’s guardian in Cusco

·  Built Inka Garcilaso de la Vega future house which is located on “fourth huaca of the eighth ceque in the direction of Chinchaysuyu and on the Cusipata square. (Museo de Historico Regional de Cusco)

§  Diplomacy was always attempted first which involved negotiating relationships, gifts, and promises. War was last resort.

§  Food and feasting in the andes is considered critical to the consolidation of power (Bray 131)

§  Weapons were primarily stone clubs, spears, and slings

§  The inca’s edge at food production became the cornerstone of their conquests

§  First thing upon annexation were for Inka Tocricoc’s to create a clay model of the conquered area. Such models were presented to the ruler, who before dispatching his representatives indicated the changes he wished them to introduce. Then they would mark the boundaries of the lands that were to be the Inkas and those of the governor of the region, and continue with the installation of the rest of the Inka organizational scheme (Rostw. 154)

§  Sapa Inka would visit their sacred places and would take part in the conquered people’s ceremonies. (Rostw 158)

§  Enemies could be hung from trees. Common on coast during Civil war (Which generals)

§  Camps consisted of tents, and they would camp outside of cities

§  “looked like a very beautiful city”

§  Very orderly

§  The temples would be full of holy women to follow the army (in Cajamarca when the Spanish observed them there were 500 of them brought onto the square). 

§  Incas promised freedom to those in order to gain them as allies then would betray

§  Some tribes would prefer starvation over being subjects. They would literally not plant food so they couldn’t eat if they wanted to, and then they would die.

§  http://www.ancient.eu/Inca_Warfare/ Super good info on everything.

§  Piña is the word for prisoner of war. They were at the bottom of the social status scale. (Rostw. 176)

§  There is no further information. We only know of them by their mention in the dictionaries of runa simi. (Rostw. 176)

Macana: two handed wood sword like weapon

·  By the time of Spanish arrival the Cusco valley there was a continuous spread of large villages on both sides of the Huatanay River. (Bauer 95)

·  Most of the productive zones in the Cusco valley were the large alluvial terraces that rest some 20-50 meters above the valley floor (Bauer 6).

·  The base of the valley was flooded Jan-March and thus was useless for crops (Bauer 6)

·  The slopes 3500-3900m were used for tubors, quinua and tarwi. Above that was for ichu, grass used for pasture.

·  Cusco valley was covered in trees.

·  The walls around it were 4-5 meters. 

·  Within Cusco were hundreds of smaller stone buildings.

·  Cusco was less a concentrated city and more an an archipelago of settlements that were grafted onto the slopes that surrounded the city’s core. (Kosiba, 183).

·  Pumachupan, called by the Spaniards as Remate de la ciudad) was the joining of the Tullumayu and Saphi rivers. It was a boundary that separated the core of the city from the surrounding fields and communities. (Kosiba 189).

·  There were 42 abstract lines that came together at Coricancha (Bauer 154 [Cobo])

·  The Ceques (pathways) and huacas that were arranged on the ceques across the valley of Cusco were to create a calendar of the celestial cycle that structured and synchronized the agricultural tasks and ritual practices. This essentially created an orgaznized map of Inca society (Kosiba 184 [Zuidema 1977]).

·  The ceques determined social relationships throughout the Cusco region and emplaced a social hierarchy centered on the core. (Kosiba 184).

·  The first shrine along the ceque is typically is generally in Cusco and often near Coricancha. The last shrine of a ceque is always outside the city, frequently near or just beyond the border of the Cusco Valley (Bauer 154).

·  There is a large stone called Sabarura which was believed to be a petrified warrior, was situated where the belvedere of of Santo Domingo was constructed. Another, at the base of the complex, was a spring called Pilcopuquio. Many of the plazas in cusco contained shrines. (Bauer 154)

·  Guaracince was in the square of the Temple of the Sun, it was called Chuquipampa (Beamns Plain of gold). It was a bit of flat ground which was there, they said an earthquake formed. They made sacrifices so that it would not quake. (Bauer 154 [Cobo])

·  Near the Coricancha there was a stone brazier in which offerings to the sun were burned. It was called Nina. They could not take the fire for offerings from anywhere else. Women who resided in the temple of Cusco were in charge of that fire. It was only fed by special, carved, and painted wood (the wood was red and brought from the coast of Peru). A cook would make food during the night, and when Punchao was fully illuminated by the morning sun, the women offered the sun the food they prepared and burned it with great solemnity and songs. (Bauer 155[Cobo])

·  The people of Cusco likely understood their past in terms of places related to perception and spatial orientation and relation (to human persons, non-human persons, or objects), rather than mental maps (the ceque system). as would have been seen and understood by the elite. (Kosiba 185).

·  In the Quechua language, they understand spatial orientation and location in relative to other parts so to learn of one object, such as oneself, there must be a defined relative relationship to another object. This transforms how Cusqueños and Conquistadors saw Cusco. (Kosiba 186).

·  The main plaza was split by the Saphy River and was located near the middle of Cusco. The plaza on the west side of the river was called Cusipata, and the area to the east of the river was called Haucaypata. (Bauer 111)

·  The plaza of Intipata was near Coricancha. Only Royal Blood Incas were allowed to cross it. 

·  Another plaza named caritampucancha was said to be the first place where Manco Capac settled on the site of Cusco. Children were offered to it along with everything else (Buaer 155 [Cobo])

·   

·  Now referred to as the Plaza de Armas, was of great importance to the Inca. 

·  Tousands of people gathered in it several times a year for festivals including those of the solstices in June and December, August for planting (maize), May for harvest (maize). For these festivals, the mummies were taken from their palaces and placed in the plaza.

·  There was a thick layer of coastal sand (likely 2 feet) located below the surface. It contained numerous offerings such as gold and silver vases, tiny sheep, and men. It is assumed that these were offerings for Varriocha (Bauer 114)

·  Near the center of the plaza was an ushnu, or platform, was a pillar of gold where they drank to the sun in the plaza. At the foot of this stone was a basin into which liquid offerings, expecially chicha, was poured. This basin must have been impressive. (Bauer 114)

·  There was a round tower on the southside of the plaza (Bauer 119)

·  If any Solar observations were made in Cusco, it was likely here (Bauer 153)

·  “And thus they stated that all the plaza of Cusco had its own earth removed from it, and it was taken to other place because itw asgreatly esteemed, and they covered it over with sand from the seacoast to a depth of two palms and a half, and in some places more. They planted in every part of it many gold and silver vases and tiny sheep and men of the sae materials, of which a great quantity have been removed, which we have all seen. The entire plaza was of this and when I went to govern that city and if it is true that that sand was brought from where they say and have in their records, it seems to me that it would be so much that the entire country as a whole had to know about it, because the plaza is large and the number of loads brough into it was countless, and the coast at the nearest point is more than 90 leagues, asi I think it to be.” Polo de Ondegardo 1965: 118-119 [1571]. Buaer 113.

·  Often referred to by the spanish as “Tianguez.” This suggests that part of this plaza was dedicated to a market during inca times, such as was seen in the plaza of Xauxa when the Spanish passed through it in 1533 (Bauer 115)

·  It is now called the Plaza de Regocijo. Only a small percentage survives till today. (Bauer 117)

“In many of the Inca’s houses there were large halls some 200 paces in leggth and fifty to sixty in breadth. They were unpartitioned and served as places of assembly for festivals and dances when the weather was too rainy to permit them to hld these in the open air. In the city of Cusco I saw four of these halls which were still standing when I was a boy. One was in Amarucancha, among the houses that belonged to Hernando Pizarro […]The second was at Cassana […] the third was at Collcampata […] this was the smallest, and the largest was that at Cassana.  Which was capable of holding three thousands persons. It seems incredible that timber could have been found to cover such vast halls. […] the fourth is that which now serves as the cathedral church.” Garcilaso de la Vega 1966 320-321)

·  This is the most splendid compound in Cusco. Pizarro stayed this his compound. (Bauer 117)

·  It stood at the NW corner of Haucaypata. (Bauer 117)

·  The mummy of Huayna Capac was kept in Casana. (Bauer 117)

·  Consisted of a number of impressive structures encircled by a large wall. Held the largest festival hall in Cusco, one that was capable of holding some 3000 persons. (Bauer 117)

·  This was one of four great halls located in Cusco. (Bauer 117)

·  Cassana means ‘something to freeze,’ because who ever stared at them for too long would be frozen with astonishment at their size, (Bauer 118).

·  It consisted of finely worked masonry, it had been a royal dwelling, the Incas used for festivals and dances in rainy weather. 60 mounted men could easily joust with canes in it. (Bauer 118)

·  It had a large doorway at one end. It had a straw roof which was easily set ablaze (Bauer 118)

·  Has two round towers which stood on either side of the main entrance at the interior corners of a courtyard. They had a sole door, straw roof which overhung the walls. The thatch was so thick it took 8 days to burn when set onfire. They had ornamental tiles within them. (Bauer 119)

·  The entrance was so unique that most recorders mentioned it and Cobo included it in the list of ceques, “The fourth huaca had the name of Guayra and was in the doorway of Cajana. At it sacrifice was made to the wind so that it would not dodamage and a pit had been made there in which the sacrifices were buried. The fith huaca was the palace of Huayna Capac which was named Cajana wihthin which was a lake named Ticcicocha which was an important shrine and at which great sacrifies were made.” (Bauer 121) “

·  It was located in a rectangleuar plaza, the greater part of which was flat and paved with small stones. Around the plaza were 4 hourses of noblemen, which one of them were this compound. Its door was colored marble of white and red and the entry way was enlaied with prescious stones (Bauer 121).

·  There may have been a lake within the compound (Bauer 121)

·  “In many of the Inca’s houses there were large halls some two hundred paces in length and fifty to sixty in breadth. They were unpartitioned and served as places of assembly for festivals and dances where th weather was too rainy to permit them to hold these in the open air. In the city of Cusco I saw four of these halls, which were still standing when I was a boy. One ws in Amarucancha, among the houses that belonged to Hernando Pizarro. The second was at Cassana…the third was at Collcampata…this was the smallest of the four houses. The largest was that of Cassana which was capable of holding three thoudsand persons. It seems incredible that timber could have been found to cover such vast halls. The fourth is that which now serves as the cathederalchurch.” Garcilaso de la Vega Bauer 117.

·  This compound was associated with Inca Pachacuti (Bauer 122)

·  Coracora means pasture for the place used to be pasture and the square in front of it was a swamp or marsh. (Bauer 122)

·  Seems to be one of the four compounds located on the same plaza as Casana.

·  Stood on the SW corner of the plaza near the Saphy River. It faced Casana. It was likely built by Huascar. (Bauer 125)

·  Amarucancha means the enclosure of the serpent (Bauer 124).

·  Some of its rooms were used for the ancient kings. (Bauer 124)

·  Likely an impressive building considering that it was granted to Hearnando de Soto (Bauer 124)

·  There was a round tower in front of it (Baur 124)

·  There was a room within it that was previously struck by lightening. It was walled up and closed up. It was taken as an ill-omen toward the king. (Bauer 125)

·  There were golden jars buried in the square in front of it.

·  “Great Beauty,” Gacilaso.

·  Stood in front of the Amarucancha compound.

·  It was a very find round tower before the entrance to Amarucancha. The walls were about 4 times the height of a man. The roof was made of excellent timber that they used for royal palces. Its roof was rounded like the walls and above it, in place of a weathervane, it had a bery tall and thick pole that enhanced its height and beauty. It was more than 60 feet in height inside. It was the tallest building. (Bauer 127)

·  A paved street separated the Amarucancha from the Acllahuaci. The street was called the “Street of the Sun.” (Bauer 128)

·  *This will just talk about the architecture of this building and not acllyahausi at large)

·  The Acllahuaci made up ¼ of central cusco (Bauer 128)

·  “Narrow passage wide enough for 2 persons that ran the whole length of the building. The passage had many cells on either side which were used as offices where women worked. At each door were trusted portresses, and in the last apartment at the end of the passage where n one entered were the women of the Sun. The house had a main door as convents do in Spain, but it was only opened to admit the queen or to reieve women who were going to be nuns” Garcilaso de la Vega. (Bauer 128).

·  There were numourous structures within the Acllahaci as well as four alleyways (Bauer 128)

·  There were large bins called pirua. They were made of trodden clay mixed with plenty of straw, yet very skillfully constructed. They were varied in the proportion to the height of the walls of the buildings in which they were placed. Narrow, square. Each size bin was kept in a special building, which it had been made to fit. An alley was left between the rows of bins so that they could be emptied and filled in turn. To empty these bins holes were made in the front of them. (Bauer 129)

·  The bins mentioned above were stocked with maize and were likely where the root ingredient for chicha was stored in bulk. As the stores were depleted they could keep track of what was left so as to never run out. I’d bet they had equally impressive stores for raw materials for textiles and dyes.

·  The walls were not vertical but leaned slightly inward. The stones are perfectly squared The stones have two sets of faces and corners so that a groove is formed between the lesser faces of the fitted stones separating the faces in relief. The stones are progressively smaller as they get higher. The walls are two or three estados high.

·  Translated as “The Great Enclusure,” (Bauer 132). It had a single large entrance. It was beside the Acllahuaci. It had a very high wall of stone masonry. It contained 100 houses where resided the priests and some ministers of the temple and the acllyas. (Bauer 132)

·  It may have consisted of the palace of Inka Pachacuti (Bauer 132)

·  There were two important huacas and ceques within it, both springs. One of these huacas was called Canchapacha. It was a fountain in the street to which they made sacrifice on account of certain stories that the Indians tell. The other was another fountain named Ticicocha, which was inside the house. This belonged to the coya. In it were made very great and ordinary sarifices, especially whne they wanted to ask something of Mama Ocllo. (Bauer 133)

·  There was another huaca named Puñui next to this house. It was very solemn shrine because it was held to be the cause of sleep; they offered everyt kind of sacrifice to it. Two prayers were asked of it, that those unable to sleep could sleep, and that they wouldn’t die in their sleep. (Bauer 133)

·  Large compound to the south of the plaza was called Pucamarca.

·  It contained two temples.

·  House or temple designated for sacrifices of the Pachayachachic (Creator) in which children were sacrificed and everything else. (Bauer 134)

·  Another temple named Pucamarca in it was an idol of the thunder called Chucuylla. (Bauer 134)

·  The statue of the creator was the size of a 10 year old boy. It was in the shape of a man standing, the right arm raised high with his hand almost closed and his fingers raised, like a person who was ordering. (Bauer 135)

·  Situated between Pucamarca and the Temple of the Sun. is where Topa Inca Yupanqui was born. Also where Pachacuti was born. The members of the ayllu Inacapanaca sacrificed there. (Bauer 135)

·  A house named Condorcancha is where Pachacuti lived, it may have been iwthin Hatuncancha. (Bauer 136)

·  Palace of Huascar: No known information other than it must have been impressive because Don Diego de Almagro, took it as his prize during the establishment of Spanish Cusco. Possibly located where Casa de la Admiral (now the Arcaeological Museum) was later founded. (Bauer 122).

·  Uchullo was the palace of Huayna Capac before Casana was constructed. There is no other mention of this building. (Bauer 124).

·  Near the center of the east side of the H. plaza was a large hall. It was the palace of Inca Viracocha. Numerous Spaniards were hassed in it upon their first entry. Later became the first municipal council house. It was built upon a terrace above the plaza. (Bauer 124)

·  Pomacorco is the house of Huayna Capac. It is on the north side of Central Cusco.

·  Up the hill from Pomacorco was the palace of Colcapata which housed the Conquest Period Kings: Manco Inca, Paulla Inca, and Carlos Inca.

·  In that same area was another temple for Thunder in the Totocachi distrct. There was a gold statue of thunder on a golden litter. Pachacuti took this statue as a brother, and during his lifetime he carried it with him whenever he went to war. This idol was greatly venerated and served in a very stately and ceremonious fashion (Bauer 137)

·  It was in the same temple, the thunder temple of Totocachi, of where Inka Pachacuti’s body was found.

·  The thunrder temple at Totocachi is likely where Church of San Blas is.

·  Hacienda de Picchu which is near the current Cusco airport. It was a large corn field. It was dedicated to the cult of Mama Ocllo. (Bauer 178)

·  There were thousands of colqus around Cusco and other important cities. (Buaer 96)

·  Translates at the “Golden Enclosure.” Derives the name from the golden sheets that were attached to its walls. (Bauer 139)

·  Coricancha was a series of buildings and courtyards surrounded by a large exterior wall. (Bauer 139)

·  Temple was dedicated to Inti, but consisted of statues of other gods as well including Viracocha, llapa, and mama-quilla.

·  Contained the finest gold and silver objects in the empire (Bauer 143)

·  The courtyard also contained a large gold fountain, in a room there was an altar of gold, another room had the remains of Huayna Capac and he was surrounded by many gold and silver objects (Bauer 143 [Mena])

·  It measured 350 paces from corner to corner.

·  The plates of gold were about 2-2.5 feet tall and weighed about 4.5 lbs. There were around 1200 of them (Bauer 144)

·  Garcilaso is the only one to note that the structures were inlaid with precious stones. It’s unlikely the were (Bauer 145)

·  The large idol of Inti in Coricancha was called Punchao.

·  Anyone who wished to enter must fast for a year and carry a load and be barefoot. (Bauer 146)

·  There were golden llamas, women, pitcher and jars. There was a gold band around the building. The band was around the temple of Inti only (Bauer 146)

·  Many support personal lived within the enclosure. Ritual supplies were stored there. The best gold was on the walls that faced the setting sun. In that wall were several niches as well (Bauer 148 [Cieza de Leon)

·  There were 12 doorways opening into an interior patio. There was also a large building within the complex that was specifically the house of the sun. (Bauer 149 [Garcilaso])

·  There was a large formal entrance into the Coricancha, northward facing (Bauer 148)

·  Behind the Intihuasi was a small courtyard surrounded by 5 buildings. (Bauer 150)

·  No clear solar alignments have been found at Coricancha. It is unlikely that solar observations were made there. (Bauer 153)

·  Cusco was not only the junction of the 4 suyus, but also of the 2 moieties of Cusco. Downstream from Coricancha was Hurin Cusco, upstream was Hanan Cusco. (Bauer 153)

·  The Garden of the Sun was Away from the room where Punchao was, there was a small field which was treated as if it were a large one. “They sprinkled it by hand with water brought on purpose for the sun. And at the time when they celebrated their ffestivals, which was three times a year…they filled this garden with cornstalks made of gold having their ears and leaes very much like natural maize.” [Bauer 146 (Pizarro)]

·  The most important site outside of Cusco but within the Cusco basin. It sits on a hill and overlooks the city. It dates from at least theh Qotakalli period. (Bauer 99)

·  The circular resivor known as Clispuquio (Spring of Good Health) is the Northern portion of the structure. (Bauer 99).

·  Calisqpuquio played an important role in a number of Inca Rituals and it was near this pool that Topa Inca Yupqnqui had an estate (Bauer 99).

·  The middle zone was included in part of the ceque system. It  also played an important role in a number of Inca rituals.

·  There were towers on its summits and a series of other buildings which no longer exist. There was a chief tower in the center, built square. The fortress had a number of terraces one above the other. The rooms inside are small. There are so many rooms and towers that a person could not see them all in one day. The Spaniards said they had never seen anything so grand in Spain. (Bauer 101 [Sancho])

·  The fort included a sun temple, a plaza that could hold thousands of people and many storage rooms filled with military equipment. (Bauer 102)

·  The military equipment within consisted of lances, arrows, darts, clubs, bucklers, and large oblong shields under which a hundred Indians could go as though under a mantle in order to capture forts. (Bauer 103)

·  Of the 12,000 men that worked at the stone quary of Sacsayhuman 4000 quarried and cut stones, 6000 hauled them with great cables of leather and hemp, the rest dug the ditch and laid the foundations. Others still cut poles and beams for timbers. (Bower 103 [Cieza de Leon])

·  More than 30,000 people usually worked in it, (Bauer 104 [Cobo])

·  Mummies were found here and idols of the first Inka Rulers, those of Hurin Cusco. (Kosiba 189)

·  It is now the neighborhood and archaeological site called Wiimplillay. (Kosiba 189).

·  Was occupied thousands of years before the Inkas. (Kosiba 189).

·  The Chima Panaka hosted ceremonies for the mmmies at Membilla (Kosiba 190 [Cobo 1653])

·  A huaca named Acoyguaci guarded the mummy of Sinchi Roca.

·  Muyu Urqu was a huaca called Tampuvilca. (Kosiba 191).

·  Received offerings of burned Coca leaves. (Kosiba 191).

·  Housed the huaca called Catacalla.

·  One of the boulders housed there named Pururauca came to lifein defense of Cusco. (Kosiba 191).

·  The ceremonial place where the ancestor Inkas rested before they descended to Cusco (Kosiba 191 [Cobo])

·  There was a semi-circular platform at the entry point. (Kosiba 191).

·  Matagua was the place where the Inkas invented many of their rites of passage, including guarachico, rutuchico, quicochico, and awscay.

·  It was likely a ruin upon the arrival of the Inkas (Kosiba 193).

·  Contains many ‘D’ shaped houses. (Kosiba 193)

·  Cold have been used as a ceremonial place before the Inkas. (Kosiba 193)

·  Height of occupation was during the Killk’e period.

·  A live person was called Runa meaning a man of understanding and reason. but the corpse body was called allpacamasca meaning animated earth. (Vega Loc 2593)

·  Sickness upon the Sapa Inka was not considred to be the same as that which inflicted regular people, nor would they try to be healed cuz they truly thought they were being called back to their father, (Vega Loc. 2662).

·  Several times they were assembled in the order of their reigns, in the plaza of Cusco. During the rest of the year, they gave and sought private audiences in their Cusco palace or in nearby royal estates. (Bauer 159)

·  Sometimes the dead went to the house of the living, and other times the living went to the houses of the dead (Bauer 159)

·  They were attended by oracles and servants (Bauer 159)

·  Huauques were statues that attended things inplace of the absent living or dead person. The three brothers that founded Cusco were represented by huauques (Bauer 160)

·  Mummification on the coast began 6000BC. Burial towers began in the northern Peruvian Andes beginning in 100AD. By Inca times it was popular all over. (Bauer 160)

·  Cuyaspa is the word that represents the love the living has for the dead. (Bauer 161)

·  “They are grouped about the plaza by clans and factions and bring out the mummified bodies of their ancestors, called munaos in the lowlands and malquis is the sierra,[…]it looks like the living and the dead come to judgment. (Bauer 161 [Arriaga])

·  Keep in mind what visiting the dead was to Andeans. It’s something they had done for thousands of years, and it was among the last of the customs to be stamped out. This custom probably encompassed all facets of their ritualistic life. (Me)

·  Atahualpa’s forces burned Topa Inca Yupanqui’s mummy was burned in 1533 when they captured Cusco because his descent group had allied themselves with Huascar. Yet, his ashes were placed in a small jar aond continued to be worshiped. Same happened with Virachocha Inca, except he was burned by Gonzalo Pizarro. (Bauer 162)

·  The male descendants of the dead Inca formed a royal descent group called a panaca dedicated which continued to support the mummy and the cult (Bauer 162)

·  Huascar grew freustrated by the fact that some of the richest lands on the Cuzco region were held by the royal panacas, once declared that “The dead had the best of everything in his kingdom,” (Bauer 162).

·  The royal mummies could be maintained in their estates or palaces, or at Coricancha.

·  There was an entire entourage of servants who provided food and drink for the mummy at the important festivals and rituals. The Panaca would make fires beore the mummies with a piece of fine wood. With that fire they burned everything that would have been consumed should they have been living. They gave the chicha to the dead in golden or silver verquis [vessals]. The living pledged the dead and the living, the dead pledged the living and the dead. They emptied them into a round stone in the idle of the plaza, which they beld to be an idol and it. (Bauer 164 [Pizarro])

·  There was one point that Huayna Capac walked along the different mummies and the panaca sang songs of the deeds and possessions of the mummy. He was so impressed by Inka Yupanqui that he ordered great festivities to be made in his honor, sacrificed many girls and objects, ordered land to be farmed and the harvest to be offered and lastly, gave the Chankas, Soras, and the Lucanas to be servants to him. (Bauer 164 [Betanzos])

·  The dead had an oracle speak for them. The oracle did not enter in a trance or anything of the sort, he simply spoke for them. The oracle was a man, but there was also a woman present. Anything that these oracles desired was given to them. All they had to say was that it was for the dead. The dead had active social lives and visited the other dead and living. They even had wild parties. (Bauer 165 [Pizarro])

·  There were mamacuna that had the task of holding in their hands red feathers attached to a long stick with which they would shoe flies away from the mummies. (Bauer 166)

·  When the mummies came out to festivals they had diadems with very attractive feathers placed on their head with holden earplugs hanging. Gold discs were placed on their head. (Bauer 166).

·  The dead were used as advisors to the present Sapa Inka (it was carefully observed which oracles provided sound advice and which didn’t). The most trusted mummies and their spokespersons were also used as ambassadors for the Inka. It also provided a way for the houses of Cusco to influence internal affairs w/o directly challenging the divine ruler. (Bauer 167)

·  The statues, or ‘guauque’ also had lands, servants and were revered after death next to the mummies of their ‘brother’ (Bauer 168)

·  The body of Inca Roca was associated with rainfall. When his body was found by the Spanish it was written, “In addition to the ordinary adoration and sacrifices made for it, when there was a need for water for the cultivated fields, they usually brought out his body, richly dressed, with his face covered, carrying it in a procession through the fields and punas, and they were convinced that this was largely responsible for bringing rain. (Bauer 173 [Cobo)

·  When Huayna Capac died it is recorded that they removed the entrails of his body, then they let him set out in the sun to dry and cure for many days, then they dressed him in many fine clothes and placed him on an ornate litter well adorned with feathers and gold. Then they sent it to Cusco.

·  The hearts of Sapa Incas were placed in special containers in the center of the Punchao, the golden image of the Sun in Cusco (Bauer 176).

·  The mummies were buried like those I saw in Laymebamba, they even looked down, toward the ground. (Bauer 179 (de la Vega])

·  HC body is in the city of Cusco, whole, and enveloped in rich cloths and lacking only the tip of the nose. (Bauer 176 [Cobo])

·  There were several bultos(Bauer 176 [Cobo])

·  Freequently they took the body out of Yucay and his palace on the central plaza of Cusco, out into the plaza with music and dancing. (Bauer 176 [Cobo])

·  He was among the first figures visited by visitors to Cusco. (Bauer 176 [Cobo])

·  His body was discovered but was guarded by two: Hualpa Titu, and Sumac Yupanqui. (Bauer 176 [Cobo])

·  Whenever his body was moved, no matter the haste, it was accompanied with five or six idols that were supposed to protect him. (Bauer 177 [Cobo])

·  Preserved with Resin

·  Seemed to be alive

·  Eyes seemed real and lusterous. They were made of golden cloth

·  His hair seemed natural, as if he died the same day, although it was over 60 years old.

·  He had a scar on his head/scalp. 

Cieza de Leon 131-132

Atienza 37-38

·  Sandals with the soles made of cabuya, above the toes were made of very fine wool of many colors. (Bauer 97[Pizarro])

§  Women wore a large pice of cloth wrapped around their bodies, tied at the wait a belt, and pinned at the shoulder. Another piece of cloth (mantle), was worn over the shoulders, and fastened in front with a large pin or tupu. (Malpass p.83)

§  Men wore a tunic over a loincloth, wrapped around the waist and groin, very similiar to modern poncho, the tunic was a loarge piece of clothe doubled over and sewn along the sides, with slits left for the arms and head. (Malpass p.83)

§  Men wore wollen or cotton fringes below their knees and around their ankles. (malpass p.84)

§  Men and women wore wimple sandals made of woven wild plant, cotton, or camelid fibers with an untanned leather sole. (malpass P. 84)

§  The concoring incas would wear the clothes of the conquered for a short while (Museo de Oro, Lima. Image: IMG_1238.JPG)

§  Wool clothes in Quito, were only worn by the most high Incan nobles, and never to a local curaca. Most wool production could have been sent elsewhere. 

§  The three things that distinguished an Inka were the ear plugs, llautu and plaited hair. Ear plugs the size of jars (Vega 2071). The llautu was finger height and considerably less wide. Various colors. It was wrapped around the head three or four times, and the hair was plaited. The Sapa Inka had the shortest hair, at least in the times of Manco Capac. (Vega 2072)

§  The standard military tunic was a black-and-white checkerboard design with an inverted red triangle of the neck

§  There was a cloth in Cusco made of feathers not larger than a fingernail. They were from a bird called comine birds. They twisted the feathers in to thin cords closely wound about a framework of maguey in such a fasion as to form pices more than a palm wide, and the whole was fastened upon certain chests. (Bauer 97 [Pizarro])

§  Maltes made with very delicate little spangles of mother-of-pearl, gold, and silver in such wise as to cause astonishment at the dexterity.. Even though it was woven, one couldn’t tell it was. (Bauer 97 [Pizarro]

§  Clothing served at least 4 purposes: to specify one’s lineage, and the other to specify the rank you have reached in the progression of life: the clothes presented at one’s first haircut, the breach clot that was worn by men after having had sex. Thirdly, power in the government. And in which clothes you were buried.  (Salmon 87)

§  Silver bracelets, like Moorish Anklets, is used as a minor object to sigify incan rank; but was used among the aborigines as well. 

§  Chaquiras de Oro (gold beads) were used to make choker necklaces. They were viewed as prestigious and was associated with noble burial and with special tribute from privileged people to nobles. (Salomon 90)

§  Everything was done through barter, there was no monetary system. Anything could be exchanged, even time spent working for each other. But overall communities were expected to be self-sufficient. 

§  This refers to greater Quito specifically, but I believe it is what occurred across the Andes on a mircoscale. There are 4 catagories of goods that are outside the basics that one could produce themselves. 1) basic necessities that were not produced by ones self, but the community, and or the curaca such as Maize production, or legumes. 2) these goods are from outside the llajta itself, and were controled by the curacas, as least with much more ease than commoners. Such included in this group would be hunted meat, the curacas had servants do it, and they extended their power to control all hunted meat done by the commoners. Also herds fell into this group. 3) goods that were traded outside of the immediate areas, in the case of Quito, it would be those goods that were obtained by trade, or force, from the Yumbos. The curacas had control of this, but a commoner could negotiate a small deal. Such in this catagory would be mountain salt, red pepper, cotton, and other things that came from the Yumbos, and perhaps the Quijos. 4) goods that are highly processed, portable, and with exoitic associations. These things were from afar, or very difficult to create. They are out of reach of anyone but the most powerful. In this group, in Quito, would be personal adornments, coca, finished major garments, gold, bead wealth, and hatches (espcially Quito and Canari). Possessing goods from catagory 4 would be a specific mark of achieved, or inherited power in the political or economic realms. (Salomon 94)

§  The lower classes received anything they didn’t have by either trading with those around them, or in the immediate area from their stores of surplus, or things they didn’t need, or by receiving it from a superior class for prestation. This is how it worked from Sicchos and Angaarca all the way north to at least Pasto. (Salomon 115)

§  Things that were typically traded: Cinnamon (known as a treasure of Atahualpa’s encampment), bandul (veggy coloring for painting faces), coca (from Quijos).

§  The termini of the shipments seems to have been the tiangueces of Quito, and Jatun Quijos (in Quijos).

§  The highlanders had the same awe of the shaman’s curing powers as they do now. The shamen had a lot of influence on highlander’s thoughts, more so then their products did.

§  There was worth attached to chaquiras in some chiefdoms among Ecuador, but more worth was attached to 1) red and white bones from an unknown animal, made into beads 2) mullu. Beads made from the white and red shells of Spondylus. Those were traded from Southern Peru to as far north as west coast Mexico. 3) carato. A string of 24 red and white beads resembling those made of bone and mullu, traded among the Quijos. (Salomon 91). 

§  On the Ecaudorean coast, and Puná island, they had ‘hatchet-coins.’ No particular worth was attached to them, but they were exchanged for goods. They are found in tombs. They came in many sizes. (Salomon 93)

§  Loosely, it can be called a market, but in fact, it’s a center for bartering from different groups. No coinage, or very little was used. the products offered in these markets were plentiful and varied, including basic necessities, as well as luxuries. The Incaic government made no attempt to suppress the market system, but only to regulate it in accord with its interests (may not have occurred in Quito). They took place in a central plaza, large enough for horses to ride through. (Salomon 102)

§  It seems only the higher class had access to the full-fledged tianguez, and the commoners had access to one that was independent, and they traded among others of their class, and mostly stuff that was available among their llajta. (Salomon 114)

§  Tianguez appeared at places of strategic intersections of transports, frequently near major ecological frontiers each being sponsored by an economic elite. (Salomon 115).

§  The lower tier ‘tianguez’ among the commoners in the greater Quito area was between llajta-llajta, and not necessarily a different ecological zone. These likely ceremonious, could have had an extended network that branched far out, but to receive something from faraway would be rare, and likely very expensive. 

Mindalaes

§  Trade specialists who lived in the semi-autonomous market zone of Quito, but were still members of their home illacta. 

§  There were 26 of them from Urin Chillo. They had no master, but had a principle leader. This is the only place in the empire where Mindalaes had a positive connotation, elsewhere the word construed a negative meaning, typically a peasant woman going from town to town bartering whatever she had. But that meaning could have becomed after the fall of the Incaic (Salomon 100) Government, which according to Garsilaso de la Vega, provided very well for single women, and no one would be found begging. (Garsilaso de la Vega). 

§  Not much is known about these guys but they did range from Cocchi to at least North of Pasto. Sometimes they were subject to lords, other times not. They all likely still paid their lords tribute of somesort, usually gold, and those red and white beads. It seems like they specialized in high prestige and high value goods. (Salomon 104). I’ll hypothosize here and say, 

§  these guys were always on the road, they had to trade for their all their sustenance. Not only that, but it’s likely that they were forbidden to wear, or consume, some or all of their goods because they didn’t have the status. I bet they were like a cross of couriers and brokers. 

§  The llajtakuna depended on the Yumbos for cotton, salt, and red pepper (I’d imagine fruits and other things as such). (Salomon 107)

§  The Yumbo’s themselves had a trade network that may have been as extensive as the mindalá apparatus. people reaching all the way to the sea. (Salomon 108)

§  The Yumbos had control of the Salinas de mira in Imbabura provice and at Cachillacta, as well as at Tomavela. All these places were very very important. (Salomon 107)

§  Tomavela was the site of a complex colony under Inca governance. (Salomon 107)

§  Salt cold be traded for gold in the east. (Salomon 107)

§  The highlanders typically traded with salt and cotton (both obtained from the Yumbos), and the quijos would typically give gold for those items (seems like post-colombus…), and dogs.

§  The trade seemed to be mostly pressed by the amazonians, as their need for highland goods was greater than that for amazonian goods.

§  The trekkers/traders would rest a few days in Quito from their injuries traversing the eastern cordillera. 

§  Many died in the eastern heights.

§  Quijos-Quito traffic was never heavy, but never ceased.

§  Pre-colombian routes seemed to come from Pasto on down through Guapulo, Cumbaya, and then Quito, and contineud salcedo, Latacunga, and Pillaro which formed its terminus.

§  Those from the western Cordillera would even make the long trek to Quijos via Angamarca and Ambato.

§  Highlanders esteemed the herbs, and sometimes lowland shamans highly regarded knowledge.

§  The second most important route was the pre-Incaic trail from Baeza through Papallacta to Quito. It seemed that the Incas preferred this route.

§  The Incas would go in disquise of highland merchants to scout out the amazonian side of the cordillera. (Soloman)

§  There were specialized fishermen that traded the fish that they salted and dried…their property. (Rostw. 162)

§  Mindalás were landless people, they devoted themselves entirely to trade.

§  Amazonian shamen of the area preferred dogs, and other domesticated animals in exchange for their knowledge.

§  Several classes of traders depending on what was traded. (Rostw 159)

§  6000 traders in Chincha

§  Used rafts as far as Puerto Viejo and Mantas, used the land passages using caravans of camelids and carriers to altiplano and Cusco. (Rostw 160)

§  Carried copper for maritime exchange with the north and mullu (red shells from Spondylus) to the south. (Rostw. 160)

§  Received mollo from Huancavilca (Ecuador).

§  The Chinca Traders were likely known as either mollo chasqwui camayoc or mollocachac camayoc, or molla ñanhuinha camayoc. (Rostw. 162)

·  Festivals and rituals were used to remember, or know things, anything from history to current events and accomplishments. (Kosiba 202).

·  Some traditions were likely used to structure social memory for a joint identity. (Kosiba 202).

·  Ushnus or platforms, were square, multitiered platforms with a staircase leading up one side. They functioned as a viewing platform on which he Inka and other elites conducted important rituals. They were typically located in the middle of plazas. Ruins exist at Huánuco Pampa, Vilcashuaman, and Curamba to name a few. (Bauer 115)

·  Ritual pouring of Chicha at the center of plazas seems common in all Inca festivals (Bauer 115)

§  Festival of Raymi to celebrate summer solice

§  Inca’s celebrated the victory over the Chutis was observed yearly (source) buried crouched facing the rising sun (in preparation of rebirth), carefully wrapped w/cotton stuffing and wool clothes.

§  Sacrifices and other rituals would be performed in a depression on the ground and spectators would stand above.

§  The cleaned themselves and purified themselves before entrance into the temples 

§  External palaces in cities were used to house and feed the people that would arrive days before the festivals.

§  The first sacrificed llama was always black, for this color was held most sacred because it was most pure (even a white llama has a black snout). (Fussell 298[Garcilaso]).

§  After the black llama’s belly was split and its organs read, large umbers of creatures were slaughtered and their flesh roasted on spits in the public squares for all to eat with the sancu bread (Fussell 298 [Garcilaso])

§  Inca song during Inti Raymi Peacefully, safely, sun, shine on and illumine the Incas, the people, the servants whom you have shepherded guard them from sickness and sufferingin peace, in safety. (Fussell 298)

§  The priest of the sun, they initiated each rite during the festivals, they selected and performed the sacrifices, they led general prayers.  (Poma de ayala)

§  Mullu was the proper sacrifice for gods. (Salomon 92)

§  A song with a dance is a takies. 

§  The largest festival was for harvest of maize. They would dance and drink for 4 to 6 days. They would do nothing else. The dance they would perform, would involve forming many rings of dancers. And after the festival, they would sleep for several days from exhaustion. Another of the main festivals was of the first hair cutting, which was quite similar to that in Tawantinsuyu. They gathered for a few days before the new moon, partying like any other main festival, and within minutes of its first light they would cut the hair.  Saloman 78

§  Another festival is performed after a male has his first sexual intercourse with a female. They dress him in a guara (breech clout) and there’s a big party of many people (doesn’t specify sex). The senior men hold the new non-virgin tied to beam where they lash the youth’s legs (the common and usual punishment of the Incas) telling them how they must live, what they must conform to, and carry out and whom they must respect. After this, they confer upon him a new name. (Salomon 79)

§  Distribution of meat at festivals follows the hierarchy of power: the most powerful at the table, or he hosting the event, would get the choisest cut of meat (or 2), and the guest, typically a begger or, would be content some cheese or an egg. Keep in mind, the control of protein is control of visible rank.

§  For funerals, beer was dumped on the dead as well. Loud voices of wailing. The dead was seated upon a tianga [throned stool] and carried upon a litter. They would walk forward and backward so that walking just several meters would take two or three hours. They buried woman and possessions. The women fought of whom it should be. The would have ‘giant straws’ known as guaduas and they would protrude from the grave to above the ground where beer could be poured to them. Cooked food was placed upon the mound. (Salomon 79)

§  Quito: The women dyed their hair to perfect black. But before doing so, they had to do a special cleanse. No meat, red pepper, salt

§  One of the greatest festivals in Cusco was the Coyaraimi which took place during the September equinox and coincided with the arrival of the first rains. During these days they celebrated the festival of the Ciuta, which consisted of acts of purification to free the city of all its eveils. Pretty sure these were ran by priestesses. (Rostw 159)

§  Banquests lasted a long time and participants would drink heavilty at these feasts until they became inebriated. (Bray 98)

§  They would take turns each offer chicha in the following way. The one who was offering would get up and go over to a member of the other group carrying two glasses of chicha in his hands, giving one glass to his counterpart and keeping the other himself. They would drink together (Bray 98)

§  The dead would be brought out during each major festival for all (rich, poor, hurin, hanan) to see. Songs would be sung by their mamacuna and the yanakuna. The songs would begin with songs about Manco Capac. (Bauer 166)

§  Engendered a landscape replete with diverse social memories and perspectives of the Inka’s past. (Kosiba, 183).

§  One of Cusco’s most important ceremonies (Kosiba 186).

§  During the first days of the festival, outsiders left the city (Kosiba 187).

§  The Inka would initiate the drinking with the mummified ancestors and then the processions would begin. (Kosiba 187).

§  The path of each procession passed by several huacas on their way to their destination (Kosiba 196).

§  This reiterated the phase of early Inca political development, a phase during which the Cusco’s ethnic joined to help the Inkas form their state. Then, because of their greatness, they offered consecrated foods to the outsiders whom they subjecated.

§  This ritual, which includes Guarachico, included many huacas that embodied ansestors, more so than other festivals/processions. (Kosiba 198).

§  The paths were meant to invoke initates dispositions and perceptions before they entered mythic places. (Kosiba 199).

§  These processions provided the initiates an opportunity to have intimate encounters with mythic beings. (Kosiba 199).

§  Where each Huaca was located was just as important as to when each huaca was located and determined the order in which they were visited (Kosiba 199).

§  The “pasts” that they visited weren’t linear but was seen as present, living and attainable. (Kosiba 199). Personally, the visits to the past, then back to the center, then out again signify pachacutis of which more than one can occur simultaneously in a small geographical area.

§ when the child attains the age of one year. Or when child is weened from mom.

§ Time of the first hair cutting (Kosiba 193)

§ This ritual was invented at Matagua (Kosiba 193).

§ when girls reach the age of puberty: from the first day until the last, which was three days more or less.

§ Celebration of first menstruation (Kosiba 193).

§  Becoming of man festival.

§  Ear piercing occurred during this festival (Kosiba 193).

§  Part of Capac Raymi (Kosiba 186). Personally, I saw elsewhere that the dates don’t coorespond to Capac Raymi so I’m not sure about this.

§  Boys between 12-15 years old participated in a procession during which they received items that defined their status such as arms (a guaraca a sling), a breech-cloth (guara), and earspools. (Kosiba 186).

§  After the drinking began (initiated with the Inka and the mummies), the processions would depart, led by priests (tarpuntaes) and white llamas (Kosiba 187).

§  The procession that the boys would embark upon were a series of treks that began at Plaza Haucaypata and went to different huacas. In the first procession, the boys dressed as their ancestors and reenacted the mythic journey to Cusco from Huanacauri. (Kosiba 187).

§  The boys began their journey by following a path to Pumachupan, the site where the Tullumayu and Saphi rivers meet). After arriving there, they crossed the site of Membilla (huaca that housed many mummies and occupied long before the Inkas), then Muyu Urque (a regional ceremonial center pre-Inka). Then, Tankarpata (Pre-Inka village), then Qotakalli (an Inka village). Then finally it crossed Pukakancha (burial ground). (Kosiba 189).

§  After Pukakancha the road widens and becomes a staircase that leads the boys to a broad stone platform called paqopallana which overlooks Qotakalli, uyu Urqu and Membilla. This wide area provided mass ceremonies, or taqui. There were other wide areas that could have served as platforms for ceremonies. There were very narrow areas along the path before the platforms suggesting that they gave a blessing before entering. (Kosiba 191).

§  The boys slept a night at Matagua before ascending to the shrine of Huanacauri (Kosiba 193).

§  At Huanacuari, the priests, who accompanied the boys, took a bit of wool from each llama and blew on it to make an offering to the mountain and some of the llamas were sacrificed. (Kosiba 193)

§  Here, the boys received their guaracas. The priests whipped the boys legs and then the boys sang a guari (a song that the ancestors were said to have created for this ceremony). (Kosiba 194).

§  After the boys passed Managua, the road passed to the back side of Huanacuari where they lost sight of the valley of Cusco and saw the land of their anscestors for the first time. (Kosiba 194).

§  Upon arrival, there was a large plaza on the east side of the peak of Huanacari. It was closed off by walls and strctures obscuring any view of the surroundings. The final ceremony was likely done here. On the other side of the peak was a huaca where an offering was given before/during/after the ceremony. (Kosiba 196).

§  After their offerings at Huanacuari, the boys returned to Haucaypata, performed a taqui and then did similar processions to the mountains of: Anahuarque (a huaca atop an adjacent mountain to Huanacuari), to a hill above Cusco, back to Haucaypata then to Picchu mountain located on the north side of the Cusco Valley to visit the huaca of Yavira where they conducted sacrifices and received materials that marked their status such as breechcloths, earplugs, feather diadems, medallions. They then did a taqui. Then went back to Hauyapata to give more sacrifices, perform taquis, bath in a spring and then finally had their ears pierced in chacaras near Cusco. (Kosiba 197-198).

§  After the ears were pierced, outsiders were allowed back into Cusco where they received a great welcome and fed maize cakes cooked in the blood of the sacrificed animals. (Kosiba 198).

§   

§  Ceremony of the new born (Kosiba 193).

§  Ritual invented at Matagua. (Kosiba 193).

·  Sacrifices from most esteemed to least: lambs, rams, barren ewes. Rabbits, birds, crops. Not sure where fine garments fell into the list (Vega Loc. 2638)

§  Took place in September equinox and coincided with the irt rains. Celebrated the frestival of the Citua: acts of purification to free the city of all its evils. Lasted seveal days, the fourth of which was dedicated to the moon and the earth. Likely conducted by the Coya.

·  The youths of both sexes were kept in a pound next to the llama pound, in the Field of Pure Gold before the Coricancha. They were made drunk on chicha and then strangled before their throats were cut. (Fussell 298)

·  Many pious parents, particularly in Cusco, offered young daughters of their own free will, but more were purposefully “not very watchful with their daughers. On the contrary, it is said that they were happy to see them seduced at a very early age. (Fussell 298 [Cobo])

Kero: wooden cup used in ritual drinking and ceremonies

Mallqui: Incan mummy

Oblong: a box of weeding materials usually found in tombs of nobles

[JL1]Trade

§  Chirimuya inca fruit, not to sweet but good. Juice is thick and delicious 

§  Only ate meat for rituals (Disputed by Bray Because many of their common dishes appear to be particularly created for serving meat (Bray P.131))

§  There wasn’t a “haute” cuisine as nobles and common people ate roughly the same thing, the distinction came from what they ate upon as well as the quality, quantity and diversity of the food stuff. Also differences in modes of preparation, serving and consumption…and disposal.(Bray 131).

§  “Their usual sustenance is wine made of maize…and some herbs which they call yuyo and potatoes, and beans, and cooked maize; their daily breat is any of these cooked with a little salt, and what they consider as a good seasoning to put in their stewed foods is red pepper. (Bray 97)

§  Cooking, preparation, was primarily the responsibility of women, even if it was for offering to the huacas (Bray 132)

§  Yellow chicha and white in the amazon

§  Guavas, caymitos, aguacates

§  Gorron is a native name for a kind of fish, although I can’t find what kind. They ate it though.

§  Aji is known as uchu in Quechua.

§  Uchu, salt, and chicha were always brought on journeys. That would make any food, no matter how humble, taste good (salomon 89)

§  Beer was never refused, no matter how drunk the person was, by one whom he owes allegiance. Each home has their own unique flavor of beer. (Salomon 82)

§  Food and feasting played a prominent role in the emergence of social hierarchies and the negotiation of power (Bray 94)

§  Mit’a tasks had raw materials, tools, FOOD AND DRINK covered by the sponsor. (Bray 94)

§  They did not keep water in their house, only chicha and wine and kept it in great quantities (Bray 97)

§  Making chicha was seen as a total woman thing. (Bray 98)

·  Stored food is usually kept in ceramic jars or in a separate area designated for storage. Sometimes it’s inside, other times outside. (Bray 105)

·  Ollas are pots, cántaros are pitchers. Small plain plates: platillos. Small shallow plates: patena. (Bray 107)

·  Ethnoclassification of pottery revolved primarily around vessel size and the presence or absence of decoration. (Bray 107)

·  Known as Purutus

·  Very important element in diet. Not as important as tubers or maize. (Bray 99)

·  Would be soaked in vinegar and oil and eaten raw, or dried for storage. Also stewed and boiled. (Bray 99)

·  Often would be toated and ground into a flour and used medicinally in drinks or poultices. (Bray 99)

·  Tarwi was also cultivated on a small scale for its seeds. Their seeds are quite bitter and have to be soaked for days. (Bray 100)

·  Corn was one of the main items in the pre-columbian diet (Bray 97)

·  Typical meal of the common people, and staple food, was muti. Boiled dried maize. (Bray 97)

·  Cancha: maize toasted in clay casserole like dishes. Often used for traveling where it would be ground to flour and used in a variety of ways. (Bray 97)

·  Huminta, maize dumplings, created by cancha and were typically added to stew. They were considered a treat for festivals. (Bray 97)

·  Dough balls that were cooked directly on the coals. (Bray 97)

·  Corn tortillas (Bray 97)

·  Pisancalla, their version of popcorn (Bray 97)

·  Chicha. Sora was the strongest. Made by buring maize underground until it sprouts. Another type is made from toasted maize. But the most common type was create from masticated maize.

·  Women cew a portion of the maize to be used and spit the masticated mash into jars of warm water. More grain is added to the jars and the mixture is then allowed to ferment to the desired strength. (Bray 98)

§  Food, pots, and politics are intimately linked. (Bray 94) 

§  The Inka created a distinctive and distinguishing ensemble of ceramic cooking, service and storage vessels as a consious strategy aimed at creating visible differences social clases. It was used for congrol and legitmation. (Bray 95)

§  Average Indian’s household furnishings consisted primarily of pots, large jars, picchers, and cups. In the store room they have large and small pots, some on top of the ground, others buried in the earth as vats for straining and preparing their wines (Bray 96).

§  They had more pots and ceramics for chicha production then food.

§  Different kind of jars were used for production (small, wide brimmed, and for storage. Those for storage had a narrow and long mouth. More retrictive neck to minimize evaporation.

§  7 types of Inca Pottery: 1) Aríbalos (Accorn shaped pitcher with narrow neck designed to sit on angle), 2) narrow-necked vessals w/flat bottoms, 3) wide mouthed vessels, 4)wide mouthed pots w/non flat base, meant to sit at an angle (olas) 5) bows with or without feet, 6) shallow plates and bowls, 7) glasses. (Bray 108)

o  1) Aribalos, may not be entirely correct name. It was widely used and recognized. “Tall flairing neck, high prounounced shoulders, and conical base” most likely the best known of the imperial Inca assemblage. Most likely used for chicha. (bray 111)

o  Narrow necked jars w/flat base: not nearly as common as Aribalos. Probably a container for normal liquids. Used only in more extraordinary events. (Bray 111)

o  Wide-necked jars w/flat base: Relatively rare. Not very elaborately decorated. Wide spread in entire empire. Probably used for decanting and serving functions. (Bray 113)

o  Wide mouthed pot, set at an angle (Ollas). Only really found in Cusco. Also some in Ecuador. Used for fermenting of chicha. Maybe also used as a food processing tool.

o  Pedesta-base pot: Considerd a cooking vessel is common and highly diagnostic of Inca. “Hollow flared pedestal base, a large strap handle obliquely attached to the vessel shoulder, and a simple applique design located on the shoulder opposite the handle that typically consists of a serpent figure or a pair of small protuberances. Usually equipped with a lid. Suitable for long periods of heating in the fire. Used for cooking or preparation of foods. Probably used for maize.

o  Deep dish, cazuela: common component of Inca. Carries polychrome painting. Likely used as serving containers for soups and porridges. Because it’s often polychromic, it probably decoration makes cooking less likely, probably used for serving. (bray 117)

o  Plates and bowls: Shallow plates are one of the most common vessels in the Inca state of any type. Decorative treatment includes both painted and plastic techniques.Different types of handles, typically a zoomorphic head (typically a bird). Sometimes just protuberances on both sides of the rim. Sometimes just double nubbins on the rim. Vertical and horizontal loop handles are common, but not as. Plain plates are very rare.

o  Cups keros. Were not exclusively made of ceramics, but also wood and metal. It seems the ceramic ones were more specialized uses

·  Often cooked with herbs and aji to make a strew known as pisqui.

§  Traditional Diet: almost always maize, yet never alone, “The Indians…nourish themselves with toasted maize, made into dumplings, and gruel; they eat potatoes and some worms that grow in the ground, fat ones, which they call cusos (look like large maggots), and other kinds of little fish which grows in the rivres, called choncho, and ocas, ollocos, maxuas, arracachas, zapallos, jiquimas, and avincas root which grow under the ground, like potatoes, and likewise red pepper, together with another food which is called chiche and which tastes and smells like small shrimp; and as well with some herbs, which they call yucas [yuyu] (large leaves, like Rhubarb, natural penicillin), of different kinds: some are called paico (anti-perisetic active ingredient in leaves: often in form of tea) , which is good for the stomach, belly, and toothaches; and others yusoslluto, guacamullos, chimboraza (dalhia flower, very red, like exploding), chulco (Oxalis corniculata), turnip leaves, lupines (tall purple and pink flowers, beans within flower. Edible after soaking for several days), beans, broad beans, cowpeas (white bean with black spot), and quinua. The last is good as rice, for comfrey with comfrey, and its infusion, for urinary ills.” [Rodriguez Docampo [1650])

§  “Their usual sustenance is wine made of maize, which the spanish call chicha, and the natives azua, and some herbs which they call yuyo, and potatoes, and beans cooked maize; their daily bread is any of those cooked with a little salt and what they consider as good seasoning to put in their stewed foods is red pepper. They harvest all these things around their houses. (Anonimo [1573].

§  Protein sources: beans, maize, juzu (large maggots), freshwater fish (chichi), arthropods, and land snails. But there was good hunting around Quito, in the paramos was primarily deer, partridges, and rabbits. 

§  Logro is rabbit stew with lots of red pepper, in Quito

§  Largest responsibilities for Inka government: controlling state income, effective storage of accumulated goods, and planning work teams, determining the availability of manpower in each region for service and for the armies. Ordering construction of roads, bridges, tambos, administrative centers, among the other infrastructure.  (Rostr. 153)

§  State income had three pillars: labor tax (Mit’a), state herds and land poccession (Rostw. 182)

§  Mit’a work among the state fields was festive with lots to drink and many songs.

·  To address any judge was to address the Inka (Vega 2400)

§  Inka Rantin, or Capacpa Randicac: responsible in inspecting the regions under their responsibility (Rostw 153)

§  Runaypachacac: Counted the commoners by age or stage in the biological cycle (Rostr. 153)

§  Apu Panaca: selected acllas (Rostw 153)

§  Quipucamoyac: maintained rigorous count of the incoming and outgoing agricultural and manufactured products from colqus (Rostrw 154)

§  Inka Tocricoc: in charge of guarding the major roads. Oversaw the roads and tambos. They were also in charge of creating clay models of newly annexed areas Rostw 154

§  Tocricamayoc [lowest prestige]: Supervisor of the artisans of any craft.

§  Craftspeople [composed of mitmaq and yana]: performed work for the state within their own specialties. Could be sent to wherever they were needed. Rostw 154

§  The Sapa Inka was on top, then the Auquiconas (nobles), then the people of Hanan and Hurin Cusco. Below them, theloest people, were the ethnic groups living outside the cusco valley. (Bauer 18)

§   

§  Three subsets of Kamayoqs: administrative governance; agricultural and commodity production; and socio-cultural reproduction (Yates, 57)

§  A kamayoq is signified as a person that has developed a skill that one can continue to develop over their lifetime. It is not an inherent skill. (Yates 57)

§  The Kamayoq class was integral for the function of the Inka state by participating in direct government roles and administration. They could inflict punishment (Yates 57).

§  The different subsets of kayamoqs worked closely together (Yates 57)

§  Agricultural kamayoq was versed in skill, the supply chain, and bureaucracy. They were well connected in both areas (Yates 59).

§  A person who exploited a natural resource or processed a raw material, not for subsistence purposes, but as a politcal authority, community, or religious cult. (Salomon 111).

§  There were different kinds of Kamayuq, Cachicamayo was a salt gatherer or refiner, cocacamayo was a huardian and gardener of coca plantations, cumbicamayo was a weaver of fine fabric (for a fuller list see Falcón [1571] in Rostworowski 1975). Salomon 111.

§  The clearest cut mitmaq in the Northern Andes consisting of a few Kamayuq were in the province of Chimbo province. 

§  There were a few less than full-fledged groups of kamayuq in the Chillos valley, but they hadn’t reached the level of self-sufficiency (or perhaps had, and lost it…didn’t want to join the war so they hid, or were commanded to stay to gather needed supplies). There were a few in Anan Chillo, a few in Atun Sichu (these first to were likely there to gather inter-andean wood) and some in Uyumbicho. 

§  There were a few groups of kamayuq stationed in the valley. See *kamayuq.

§  The three different insitutions that brought goods from outside the immedate area were 1) Kamayuq, which were from Incaic times, 2) non-specialists disposing of household surplus 3) politically authorized mindaláes.

o   

§  Huna Curaca - 10,000 heads of household (HOH)

§  Piska Waranga curaca 5,000 HOH

§  waranqa curaca 1,000 HOH

§  pisca panhaca curaca 500 HOH

§  pachaca curaca 100 HOH

§  pisqa chunca camayoc 50 HOH

§  chunca camayoc 10 HOH (Rostw. 166)

Pacayoc: those with earplugs

Huaoque: statue of the Sapa Inca that could stand in when he wasn’t available.

Amauta: Wise one, professor at yachaywai. Advisors and ‘memory’ of the inca.

Tocricoq: governor of wamani

Wamani: an area within a suyu.

Michoq: officer/assistants of toricoq

Tocoyricoq: “He who sees all” a royal inspector travled the empire for quality check. Could go undercover.

Sankacancha: underground pit containing pumas, bears, jaquars or poisonous snakes used for execution (note, Sankacancha was the exact name of tone of these sancays. Should be filed under locations)

Hiwaya: dropped a stone one the punished’s back from 1m high.

§  Shawmen in the north are known as pende (Soloman)

§  Priests that worked as healers were known as masca or viha (Rostw 158)

§  If you’re sick, they administer herbs topically (typically heated) and orally. Ground maize was placed upon the belly. They would create a stich on the hand, arm or leg, that looked like a vampire bite and anoint it with tobacco or coca and with maize grains. (Salomon 79)

§  Grows throughout Ecuador and Peru, but very plentiful on Puna Island in Ecuador. On that island, and I can assume elsewhere in Ecuador. The sick person goes into a warm room, covered up, so that there be no cold air. Begin by purging and then eat delicate meats and drink an infusion of root for some days, and you’ll be more healthy than ever. Helps with rid infections diseases, anti-cancer properties, anti-parasitic, and skin ailments and arthritis (anti-inflammatory). Cieza de Leon p.200, and healthline.com

§   

§  Grows around Peru, and southern Ecuador. Take a bath in it, below the tree. Increases appetite; promoting the release of digestive juices, and treating bloating, fullness and other stomach problems. Also used for hemorrhoids, varicose veins, and leg cramps. Can be used for mild attacks of influenza, common cold, malaria, and fever. Can numb pain in the eye, stimulates hair growth. Muscle cramps.

§  Tuber that grows in high elevation.

§  Usually boiled to produce a decoction that was taken for relief of stomach and labor pains.

§  Smallpox out break in Quito, in addition to the one that killed HC and the heir: years 1533, 1535, 1558, 1580, 1585 (Hopkins 212)

§  “They died by scores and hundreds. Villages were depopulated. Corpses were scattered over the fields or piled up in the houses or huts. All branches of industrial activity were paralyzed. The fields were uncultivated; the herds were untended; and the workships and the mines were without laborers. It was only with difficulty that the ships could be manned.” (Hopkins p. 213).

Camasca: healer

Soncoyoc: healer

Info from this section are cited (G. de la Vega Comm. Real, i, lib. vi, cap. 6. & Cieza de Leon p.288)

§  The Yuncas restricted all hunting by their subjects, and the number of animals of all descriptions. 

§  All was kept account on the quipus. 

§  Hunts were held in each district every 4 years. 

§  The meat was dried and preserved as charqui.

§  Deer were caught with snares.

§  There were household dogs, hunting dogs, community dogs. They loved and treated their dogs very well, in fear that if they didn’t, the dogs wouldn’t hunt nor chase well. Or be a good guardian. 

§  Hunted food was property of the local lords, and had to be handed over as part of tribute. Some lords employed full-time hunters. Meat eating only happened with festivals. No other observance of it having been witnessed, especially of deer.

§   

§  The Incas and governors of the provinces held a grand hunt called Chacu after breeding time.

§  3-20 thousand indians to surround a wide tract of country, and gradually to converge until they could join hands. The game was thus collected in the center. Another party of Indians then entered the enclosure, armed with clubs, and killed the number of animals that the lord required, often 10-15 thousand head. 

§  Before the spared animals were freed, they were shone fortheir wool. The meat was distributed amongst the indians. 

§  The infrastructure of the empire showed the locals that they were part of something bigger, and better…like the interstate system here

§  Months of January through March there is a wind from the north along the shores of Peru.

§  The importance of an object was contrived from its location in relation to another object not to some central perspective of Cusco. (Kosiba 200).

§  Colqas acted as store rooms, built near roads and population centers used to store food, lots of food. 

§  Stored evertying, food, seeds, textiles, weapons. 

§  Well ventilated, and often built on the edge of a mountain to prevent flooding.

§  They could feed a spaniard army for 2 weeks and only make a dent in the supply.

§  Read: All about Colqus, admin centers. Saved on computer. Research paper on this.

§  There were thousands of colqus around Cusco and other important cities incuding Hatun Xauxa, Cotapachi (Bolivia), and Campo del Pucara (Argentina), Cajamarca. (Buaer 96)

§  At one culqas in in Cusco there were more than a hundred thousand dead birds. There were bucklers, oval shields made of leather, copper sheets for repairing the walls o houses, knives, other tools, sandals, breatpates for the warriors, and everything in such great quantity that the mind does not cease to wonder how so great a tribute of so many kinds of things can have been given (Bauer 96 [Sancho])

§  There was fne clothing as well as some more coarse, stones of grain, of food, of coca. There were hummingbird feathers, turnse feathers (looked like fine gold), turnsole freathers (golden green color). Slender feathers from comine birds (Bauer 97 [Pizarro])

§  Panacas are the ones that controlled the colqus near the cities (Bauer 97).

§  Chasquis aka cachacona. 

§  A message could be carried from Cusco to Quite, 1500km, in 5 days

§  The trans mission of these references was arranged with such skill and order, that the post went from Quito to Cuzco in eight days. Every half-league along the road there was a small house, where there were always two Indians with their wives. One of these ran with the news that had to be transmitted, and, before reaching the next house, he called it out to the other runner, who at once set off running the other half-league, and this is done with such swiftness that neither mules nor horses could go over such rocky ground in a shorter time.” (Cieza de Leon Chronicle of Peru Part 1 P. 150)

§  Over 40,000km of roads

§  The 2 main roads were (1) between Quito and Cuzco (2) Parallel to the first, but along the coast

§  The roads were between 1 and 10 meters wide

§  Roads in the desert could have stone walls next to them to protect against the elements, and in the mountains they had an entire drainage system

§  The Incas took the roads that pre-dated their empire, fixed them and expanded them and their network

§  They developed insane bridges like Keshwa Chaca bridge. Even as far north as Quito (Salmon 148)

§  -Sometimes there were 3 roads and the Inca would travel on th emiddle one, with his entire entourage on the outside roads

§  The inkas only moved in straight lines, or st least the highway. 

§  Llama ñan would be the connecting roads

§  2 fathoms wide, which formally was narrow path. (Salomon 151)

§  Punctuated by many shrines of many sorts, including ‘mile stops’ kamuni, and entrances and exits to wakas: páramos, peaks, springs, lakes, mouths of rivers etc. (Salomon 151)

§  Surfaced with adobe, or baked earth (not brick), (Salomon 152)

§  4 types of traffic:

1)  privilieged travelers (those with earspools), traveled in hammocks and litters (rampa in Quechua). Rested at royal lodgings aposentos. (Salomon 153)

2)  ch’askikuna aka chasquis. Had a station every 4.2-6.3 km. Their lodges were very often tied to very elegant and beautiful infrastructure; otherwise, they had their small  huts between them. They also served as patrolmen and guards against unlicensed travel. They would hang ropes and bells under bridges or across the right of way as to ring if anyone tried to pass at night. (Salomon 153)

3)  Bulk transport: mindaláes in the north with their trades. Porters, armies, llama trains (not popular in the north).(Salomon 153)

4)  Poor families carrying all they had (the women would carry it). (Salomon 153)

§  Didn’t serve just anyone. Looks like you had to have a privilege of some sort. (Salomon 154)

Oroya: basically a zip line used to cross rivers on the Qhapaq Ñan. Usually only on minor roads or sections.

Yachaywai: House of learning for noble boys. The boy version of the acllawasi.

§  They slept on beds made of reeds from the lakes.

§  Everything was expected to be provided by the administrantive classes to the point that not even a crying child would be heeded to (Vega Loc. 453)

§  Liberty and ambition were unknown terms.

§  Brutes were called llamas.

§  They placed much belief in dreams because “The soul left the body while it slept…what the soul saw in the wolrd are the things we say we dream,” (Vega Loc. 2631)

§  What made them happy was a good harvest and healthy animals.

·  Allyu was a “group or unit of social, political, economic, and ritual cohesion and action. Ayllu membership may be determined by literal or fictive descent, adoption, geographical origins, political negotiation, marriage, alliance, or other criteria. Ayllus typically exhibited recursive structure and binary oppositions, splitting by moiety and forming "recursive" "nested" or "Chinese box" hierarchical arrangement of component parts.” (Goldstein, 2013 P.367).

·  A noble son was called Auqui until marriage, then he was given the name inka.

·   

§  Adults males were referred to as Hatun runa. They achieved this “age” after marriage.

§  Ages did not follow years, but what work the individual could perform

§  Auca camayoc-Males between 25-50: the most productive age; warror, agricultural workers, mitmaq, yana. Rentered most tribute and work.

§  Auca camayoc huarmi females 25-50: wives of warriors. Used for reproduction and weaving.

§  Puric macho men aged 60 to 78 who carried out light work such as gathering firewood and straw and gatekeeper or quipocamayoc.

§  Payacona 50 - 80 ages women, used to weave coarse clothes, baskets, rope, lunch lady…depending on social status.

§  Rocto macho 80 -> “old deaf ones.” If they were able they’d weave blankets or ropes, raise rabbits or ducks.

§  Puñocpaya women 80-> do same a the men.

§  Sayac Payac: Men 18-25. Paid half tribute, chasquis were chosen from them. Guarded community or state herds.

§  Zumac cipa female 18-25. Acyllas were chosen from them. Marrying age.

§  Mactacona men 12-18. Hunted birds for preparation of dried meat

§  Corotasqui women 12-18: helped their parents in various activities in light work. Learned to sew and weave, guard the hears and kept watch over the fields.

§  Na name. 9-12 Capaccocha offerings-human sacrifices-were selected from this group.

§  Puellacoc. “those that played.” Both sexes were categorized as the same. Began to help their parents with light work wuch as watching the heard, gathering firewood, taking care of their bros and sises. Girls learned to sew. 

§  Fishermen formed a social class distinct and separate fro the others, especially from those who farmed the land.

§  They lived near coves, ports and in the vicinity of lagoons which existed in all coastal valleys in those times.

§  Beaches were not open to all, each ayllu or group had a zone on the coast which belonged to them exclusively. Rostw. 171

§  The lagoons in the coastal valleys were used not only for fishing, but collecting reeds, hunting birds, and anything else they were good for. Rostw. 171

§  They did not farm. Rostw. 171

§  They usually built their houses with the reeds from the lagoons. Rostw. 171

§  In northern Peru and Ecuador they used rafts made of binded logs, in southern Peru they used caballitos (Spanish?) made from bundles of totora reeds, while even further south they used seal skins. (Rostw. 171)

§  In Chincha fishermen resided on a long stree at the ede of the sea. They had around 10,000 popoulation. (Rostw. 171)

§  Endogamous by tradition, only exogamous by necessity. (Rostw. 171)

§  Marginalized by agriculturalist, but they maintained close relationships with whatever agricultural center existed up valley. (Rostw. 172)

§  Each group only went to sea for a couple months a year as their typical mit’a work. When they were on land they did not farm. (Rostw 184)

§  In the inlands they would “Dive for fish,” (Vega Loc 293)

§  Female version of Yana. (Rostw. 176)

§  Taken in large numbers from their places of origion to occupy the acllahuasi for the production of textiles, and preparation of chicha. They were also there for when the Inka needed to provide a wife to fulfill the obligations of reciprocity. (Rostw. 176)

§  The girls selected were between 8 and 10. (Rostw. 176)

§  The girls were divided according to beauty, social origins and aptitudes. (Rostw. 176)

§  The class of yurac aclla were always of Inka blood. (Rostw. 176)

§  The most beautiful girls were called huayrur aclla. For ever virgins and dedicated to the sun. Lived a life inside the acllahuasi. (Rostw. 176)

§  Paco aclla eventually became the wives of the chiefs whom the Inka wished to reward. (Rostw. 176)

§  Yana aclla were not considered of exceptional rank or beauty and became servants to the others. [yana: servant] (Rostw. 176)

§  Taqui aclla were selected for their ability as singers and entertained in the fiestas of the court with drums, and pincullos. (Rostw. 176)

§  More or less numerous groups sent, with their families, from their places of origin to other regions to fulfill specific tasks or missions. (Rostw. 172)

§  A person performing mitmaq was called a mitayoq.

§  They maintained ties of reciprocity and kinship with their place of origin including ways of living, dress and customs. (Rostw. 172)

§  They moved with all their possessions. (Rostw. 172)

§  Practice predates the Inkas. (Rostw. 172)

§  Populations were moved to settle new lands, quell troubled areas, or to supplant a troublesome population to a friendly territory.

§  Mitmaq communities typically received rewards such as honors, gifts, luxury objects and women. (Rostw. 173)

§  Upon annexation, a resistant people could expect their land to be given to others for mitmaq, including old enemies. (Rostw. 173)

§  Chimu witnessed most of his population be resettled as mitmaq given their resistance to the Inka. (Rostw. 174)

§  Mita and mitmaq were very different. (Rostw. 174)

§  Most mitmaq returned home upon conquest of the Spanish, until the Spanish forbade it. (Rostw. 174)

§  Mitmaq could be ordered to render services to a huaca, or any institution, that the Inka wished to thank. (Rostw. 174)

§  Every Andean lord has a special seat which he occupies for any ceremony of importance as well as a litter, (Rostw 150)

§  The amount of porters indicates the status of the lord.

§  Along the north coast, trumpets formed part of the pomp of a lord along with a tavernas—someone carrying a large jug of beerage that accompanied a chief whenever he left his residence. Whenever his litter was set down, the public could come and drink at the expense of the lord. The greater the lord, the greater the number of drinking vessels.

§  The Chimor, and surrounding area’s chiefs clothes and adornments were extravagant. They wore their rich apparel not only for funerary, but any ceremony that they had to present in front of the masses: nose rings, crowns, necklaces, meals, ear spools of gold an silver, etc.

§  Were responsible, under the Inkaic system, to care for the elderly, orphans, and widows and to provide work for them, even as simple as picking coca leaves (reciprocity)

§  Literally ‘servant’ in Mochica. (Rostw. 175)

§  Was a significant institution in Late Horizon. (Rostw. 175)

§  Yanas enjoyed high social status and were not considered slaves. (Rostw. 175)

§  Yana could be a curaca. (Rostw. 175)

§  Fathers could pass the title of Yana onto their sons. (Rostw. 175)

§  Yana lost all communication with their ayllu or place of origion upon becoming a yana.They were a form of labor that did not need to be requested or reciprocated.

§  Tha Inka’s panaca held yana (Rostw. 175)

§  There were 50 yana dedicated to the care of HC mummy. (Rostw. 175)

§  A number of yana were appointed to serve the coya upon marriage to the Inka. (Rostw. 175)

§  It seems that if the Inka desired to reward an ethnic lord, he would grant them a yana. (Rostw. 176)

Mitayoq: person performing mit’a.

Runakuna: common people

Pacayoc: those with earplugs

Camayos: Specialists in management in a particular trade

Amauta: “Wise one”, professor at yachaywai. Memory of the past. Advisors.

Apu: governor of suyu

Quipocamoyoc: noble accountant that did all duties requiring records including to ensure proper tax, readers and writers of quipu. 

Camasca: healer

Soncoyoc: healer

Apupanaca: inspector to find new acllas.

Saya: a sub-division of an ayllu

§  Languages of muchic or yunga was spoken from Huarmey to the north (Rostw. 171).

§  La pescadora (Spanish) spoken by fishermen in Chimor. (Rostw. 171)

§  There are three ancient roads near Huanacauri. One leads to Cuntisuyu (it climbes through a narrow gorge between the mountains of Anahuarque and Huanacauri). It then crosses a high pass as it goes toward the towns of Pumacancha and Paruo and lands in Chisques and Mascas.

§  Another road, on the slopes of Huanacauri, appears to be a ritual procession route. It has formal architecture such as retaining walls and adjoins many huacas of the ceque system. 

§  There is a path that ascends to the SE side and high puna of Hunacuari mountains from the area of Sucsu ayllu near the town of San Jeronimo (Kosiba 189 footnote)

§  There is no indication that Huanacari was occupied before the Inkas. (Kosiba 196).

§  The shrine complex of Huanacari was located on the east side of the peak and surrounded by the glaciated mountain peaks of the Cusco region. There was a private and exclusive space, a plaza fanked by structures that obstructed the surrounding view. (Kosiba 195).

§  There was a huaca on the other side of the peak than where the plaza was. There was a zig-zag wall (Chakana) at it. Next to it is a immense jagged sandstone boulder, which was the huaca and likely one of their ancestors. (Kosiba 196)

§  At this Huaca, the entrance, path, and area by the rock suggested that visitors were taken in individually. (Kosiba 196).

§  On both sides of the single doorway leading into the Huaca was a zigzag wall. (Kosiba 196).

§  There may have been chicha production at the main site at Huanacauri.

§  An important huaca atop a mountain next to HuanacauriIt was said to have run very swiftly during the flood. (Kosiba 197).

§  This was the principal huaca of the pre-Inca groups of Cachona and Chocco who allied with the Inkas early on.

§  At the top is an extensive flat area, classic Inca pottery, remains of rectangular strctures. There is no indication of Killk’e or pre-Inka occupation at the site.

§  Probably became a huaca during Inka times to celebrate the Cachona and Chocco’s.

§  A huaca situation upon the Picchu Mountain on the North side of Cusco Valle. (Kosiba 197).

§  An important huaca that was believed to be a person who lived at the same time as the ancestor Incas did and like Huanacauri, turned to stone. (Kosiba 197).

§  Principal huaca of the Maras ethnic group.

§  Was seen as an “indigenous” huaca by the Inka’s.

§  Their horn was called a Pututu, made from either a cow horn, or more commonly, from a seashell. It has a smooth, warming sound that can be heard from long distances. They can have different pitches. (Ministerio del Cultura-Cusco)

§  Pincullo were Inkan flutes.

§  The taqui aclla would sing and perform in the Inkan court.

§  Chachúa a dance which contremporaries describe as surpassingly lascivious. (Reader 11)

§  He communicated via intermediaries (not sure which Inka. Source)

§  No one dared look him in the eye (not sure which Inka. Source)

§  A descendent of Inti

§  Each new reign was a “new beginning” of everything. LIke Genesis.

§  Wore sacred plums of the corenquenque bird

§  The kinship ties were determined by male descent, but through the ayllu or panaca of the mother (Rostworowski 125)

·  Huauque, translated as brother, were statues made by the Sapa Inca that were supposed to represient them in their place (Bauer 167 [Cobo])

·  The Huauque’s had lands and servants of their own and were greatly venerated, including sacrifices made to them (Bauer 167)

·  Many important men also had Huauque’s, but those were often forgotten over time. This made it that there were a great number of Huauque’s and they less popular ones were slowly forgotten (Bauer 167[Cobo])

·  The huauques were carried by armies with all of the authority that they could muster because they thought that this was a great help to them and made their enemies fearful (Bauer 167[Cobo])

·  Huauques could be basically anything so long as it was chosen by the Sapa Inka. Some were large, others were small (Bauer 166)

·  Could be sent with an envoy to add gravita to the message, or to show that it is a message from the Sapa Inka (Bauer 171)

·  With use of the oracles, the Sapa Inka could consult with these objects and gain advice from them concerning the intracities for his job.

·  Manco Capac’s was a stone and was carried with by Huayna Capac on his final northern campaigns. It was returned to Cusco with his own corpse. (Bauer 172)

·  Bultos were those vassels that contained the bits of the Sapa Inkas hair or fingernails and even small pieces of their flesh. (Bauer 168)

·  Bultos were greatly venerated (Bauer 168)

·  They were figures of clay that only contained hair and nails that were cut off of the live Sapa Inka embedded into them. (Bauer 168)

·  Atahualpa’s bulto was called “Incap Guaupuin.” He had it placed in a litter and charged on of his servants named Chima with guarding and watching over it. There were several others. He ordered that it be brought to Quisquis and Chacuchima to show to the people so they could render obedience to it in place of his person. (Bauer 168)

·  There was another bulto made when the Inca died (Bauer 168).

·  Could be sent with an envoy to add gravita to the message, or to show that it is a message from the Sapa Inka (Bauer 171)

·  With use of the oracles, the Sapa Inka could consult with these objects and gain advice from them concerning the intracities for his job.

§  Inca title: Ancha hatun apo yndechori “Very great lord, son of the sun!”

Huaoque: statue of the Sapa Inca that could stand in when he wasn’t available.

Tiana: stool that the inca sat upon

§  Ayllu, the basic unit of society, was a group of families that were given land that was parceled to families who would divide it amongst themselves based on size of immediate family. 

§  4 large empires consumed to form Inka Empire Purugua, shiry, cañari, quitu-Kara, Chacapoyas, Chimu

§  Grazing land was commonly held among the ayllu.

§  A group of Ayllus formed moieties, and then larger units until they formed an entire ethnic group and cururacas who would give allegiance to the inca.

§  Endogamous society

§  No private property 

§  Self-sufficiency was the ideal incanic society  

§  Population between 9 and 16 million at the height of the empire

§  Each head of family had the right to ask relation, allies, or neighbors to assist with cultivating plots, and in exchange he must offer chicha (maize beer), food and respond to calls for help.

§  Mutual aid formed the ideological and material bedrock of all Andean social and productive relations. This method of assistance was practiced at all levels of society up to the Inca himself and formed the backbone of social events and productivity. 

§  The inca people would 1)work the land, 2)make textiles and food, 3) perform Mita. Everything was done as tribute, and the inca would give them chicha, coca leaves, and land.

§  The tributed items would be portioned to all parts of Tahuantinsuyo.

§  The Mitmaq system was, before the incas, colonies of settlers sent out from the ayllus to climatically different Andean terrains to cultivate crops that would vary and enrich the community diet. The incas changed the system to fortify conquered lands,

§  fibers were the heart of Andean technologies of all kinds, even long before the Inca, 

§  Head stretching was still going on in parts of the andes (South of the Canaris per Inca Garselaso de la Vega).

§  A curaca had several ‘captains/principles,’ who lived near the curaca’s grand house. A ‘Harold’ would receive the curacas orders, and go yell it for the captains/principles to hear (or their caches who were messengers), who would then pass on the order to their subordinates. 

§  An allyu may or may not have been called something similiar to the New World Spanish word of parcialidade.(Salomon 122)

§  Marriage was required by state (Rostw 154)

§   

§  A parciadidad was different than an llajta/llajtakuna. A single parcialidad constituted an automomous community, and a cacique and his depenedents were the rulers. This is what occured in El Ynga, Pingolqui, and Puembo. A lllajta revolved around, at least, of a major maize farm, at the center either the house of the principal, or in the case of the Otavalo, a pyramid. The commoners houses were distributed in a non-nuclei fashion throughout the maize fields. 

§  One parcialidades could be an aggregate of several smaller ones, and was run by a curaca, and the rulers of the subordinate parcialidades were principales (spanish word…).

§  The land of which a curaca ruled was called a curazgo (sounds spanish to me…).

§  Along the coast all land was owned by the despot and the commoners were allowed to work on it for a portion of their harvest. Rostw 152.

§  Inkas had a sense of land ownership, think estates. Rostw. 152

§  A new home, or domestic unit, would receive a tupu of land, or the land that was thought was necessary for the household’s subsestnce. It was increased with each child. Rostw. 170.

§  The late Inkas were considered to have private properity (Rostw. 175)

·  The Chupachu of the central Andes contributed lowland feathers, significant amounts of food, guards for the Inca mummies. (Bauer 96)

·  The best cloth and wool were carried to Cusco, the ret was placed into the Colqus to cloth the people. (Bauer 96)

·  The home village was to supply their workers with food and if one took sick another was sent so he could return home. (Bauer 103 [Cieza de Leon]).

§  Black color typically represent that their creation, foreigners in Cusco required to wear it.

§  Red signifies power conquest or blood.

§  Green represented rain forest, people who may have it in them, rain, and agriculture.

§  Yellow could represent gold or maize.

§  Purple and rainbow represented mama Oclla 

§  Incan art on pottery and textiles is very different.

§  Textiles interwoven with feathers

§  Guanaco wool was course, and given to the people, while the 

§  Cicuña wool was fine as silk and was reserved for Inkas service. 

§  In Chillo valley, Urin Chillo claimed to be the only community that had male indians capable of making “cumbi” clothes. Hinting that in Inca times, men qompikamayuq were specialist weavers.

Chusi: Lowest grade textile: used primarily for blankets

Qompi: Highest grade of textile divided into 2 catagories 1) tribute 2) royal and religious functions.

Enca: stout straw/reed

Awasca: middle grade texztile primarily used for clothesing. Rarely was it decorative.

§  Quitos year begins march 21

§  In the north, especially around Quito, they set up a sundial system, divided into three segments for the day, 

1)  Before sun apex, Tuta Manta, 

2)  Sun apex, Pajta, and 

3)  Evening, Chisi. 

§  Picture in photos at mitad del Mundo.

§  The past was knowable through ritual and movements during the rituals and by the special relationship between objects, specifically huacas, along the ceque lines and in relation to each other (Kosiba 200).

Ceque calendar referenced to

 1) solar calendar dividing the year into 12 near equal and fixed solar months

 2) Synodic lunar Calendar following the phases of the moon

 3) Sidereal lunar Calendar regulated y moving position of the moon through the

Months

May: Uauca & lluque. June Canay July Moronpassa tarpuiquilla (translate sowing month) August: coya-raymi. September Tfma-Raymi (month of Huarachicu.) October Aija Marca Raymi, November Capac raymi. DecemberOamay-quilla. January Atun-pucuy, February Pacha 'pucuy, March Pancar-huara. April Ayrihuay. (Poma de Ayalla)

Important terms

Pacha: Time

Kay pacha: lifeline

Uka Pacha: future

Hanan Pacha: past

Month: suyu

Year: Huata (Garcilasso Pt. 1 Ch XXII)

Moon: Quilla

§  For fire Pedro de Cieza de Leon says they used a cream and lard made from coconuts, that they used as oil for lamps. (Reader 68)

§  Pendant cord knots signed moiety in the Mangas hybrid khipu board—

§  Urton’s hypothesis (2003) that pendant cord knot direction signed hanan and hurin, to Hyland, Ware, and Clark’s.

§  Data analysis of the Santa khipu corpus suggests that binary recto/verso attachment knots encoded the moiety affiliations of the Recuay tributaries. 

§  Khipu first cords, we have also proposed moiety groupings for the administrative pachacas/ayllus of the Santa Valley. 

§  This would constitute the first instance of “reading” nonnumeric moiety information from the attachment knots of Inka-type khipus.

§  Recuay tributaries were identified with colors in the Santa archive, with each tributary assigned a first pendant cord color depending on his first name. Summing these totals across the khipus and comparing them to the colonial revisita from San Pedro de Corongo, we arrived at a significant correlation between

§  first cord color and tributary first name. This raises a possible trajectory for deciphering the khipus—that is, using color information to match pendant cords with identifying, “narrative” information.

https://read.dukeupress.edu/ethnohistory/article/65/1/1/133085/Toward-the-Decipherment-of-a-Set-of-Mid-Colonial

§  It wasn’t “I’ll pay you to build this.” it was a community effort fueled by basic human desires

Mink’a: calling upon exchange partner to perform labor that is owed in an allyu

Ayni: labor exchange expected between members of the same ayllu

§  No important actions were taken in Cusco w/o first consulting the callpa.

§  Callpa was the ritual of extracting the palpitating heart of a camelid, in which the augury was read.

§  Each priest had a yanapac, or helper, as is the case with the lords as well. (Chuki is legit) (Rostw 158)

§  Ayatapuc communicated with the dead (Rostw 157) malquipvillac spoke with mummified ancestors according to another chronicler (Rostw 158)

§  Hamurpa examined the entrails of sacrified animals for their auguries. (Rostw 157)

§  Yañca priests observed the movements of the sun’s shadow against a wall to deterimine the most propitious time to celeberate certain festivals. (Rostw 157)

§  Each Ayllu had a huacasa or huacsa who was responsible for the ritual dances held three times a year (Rostw 157)

§  The confessor was called a aucachic, or a ichuri in Cusco. Confession was a pan-Andean custom followed in the great ceremonies or festivals when fasts were practiced. (Rostw 158)

§  Fasts were just abstanance from chile, salt, and women. (Rostw 158) Pretty sure chicha and coca as well.

§  Future tellers: Socyac predicted the future by means of maize grains. Pacchacatic foretold events using large spiders which were kept in hollow human bones and predictions would be based on how they fell to the gound. (Rostw 158)

§  Healers were included with priests called masca or viha. (Rostw 158)

§  One became a priest or an oracle through inheritance and passing a test (such was the yañacs of Cacasica and the tarpuntay of Cusco) or by election. A rare way was to survive a freak accident like lightning and suriving. (Rostw 158)

§  Tarpuntay were the priests responsible for agricultural rites. (Rostw 158)

§  Women could be priests as well. Such priestesses were those for the idol of Apurímac. In general the rites and ceremonies in honor of the moon were in th hands of the coya and the women of the Inka elite. (Rostw 158)

§  Inti is the most powerful god, the sun god

§  Incas built temples to Inti where ever they conquered

§  It was ok if conquered populations continued to worship their own god, as long as Inti was placed over them

§  The inca religion was an over-arching imperial ideology that had its own political, religious, military, and cosmological elements

§  The inca used religious reverance as a powerful poliitcal tool

§  The Inca population would view religion not as separate from politics, but part of the ruler, and all that he did and key to the rulers legitimacy. 

§  The Inca used the religion to excert their power over the lands they ruled and the people they conquered.

§  Any unique feature in the landscape could be called a huaca, or a shrine

§  On very specific days of the year the population would do pilgrimages to these huacas and offer sacrifices

§  “Faith” wasn’t a thing. 

§  The high priests likely belonged to the lower moiety of Cusco (Rostw 155)

§  Girls were chosen to be holy women because of noble birth or outstanding beauty, 

§  they were moved to cloistered colleges in the provincial capitals, such as Cajas, or Cajamarca. 

§  spent 4 years weaving fine cloth, brewing chicha for the Inca and his priests and officials. 

§  Some became mamaconas (remained in the perpetual chasisity and spent their lives in the service of the sun and shrines). Others were given as weives to the Inca nobles, or tribal chiefs, and the most beautiful becamse concubines of the inca himself.

§  The Oracles at the huacas were called guacarimachic, they spoke with the huacas.(Rostw 157) but other chroniclers said it was a Huancavelica ((Rostw 158) who also enjoyed the highest status.

§  The vaciacoc drank potions before giving their oracles (Rostw 157)

§  Huatuc was an oracle that drank a beverage and then, in a disturbed state, emitted their prophecies (Rostw 157)

§  Most famous oracles were those of Pachacamac and Apurímac, the oracle of Chinchaycamac, Mullipampa of Quito, and Catequil of Huamachuco. (Rostw 157)

§  With Inka Pachacuti there was the formation of “religious inspectors” who were charged with establishing and eliminating huacas and naming new priests. Names: Amaru Yupanqui and Guayna Auqui were individuals who held this office [recorded in names] (Rostw 157)

§  Pull eyebrows out upon entering temples or holy places, and blow them toward the holy place. It did not matter if they actually attained hair, but the mere motion was enough (Vega Loc 2668)

§  Huanachauri is said to be tone of the brothers of Manco Capac that turned to stone during their journey from Tamputoco to Cusco (Bauer 17)

§  “mecca” of south America. Even though it predated the incas, they preserved it and even built a temple of it in Cusco. They adapted to the oracle upon conquest rather than fight it.

·  Chuquipalta, located near Vitcos and Puquiura. It was a temple to Inti. It was a large white stone called Yurac-Rami and was the size 7.6x15.75m. It was situated above a spring. “ This white rock was covered in complex Inca cuttings: rows of rectangular seats, ten projecting square stones, a cave with niches, a flattened top, platforms on the sides, and artificially-enlarged cracks probably intended to channel offerings of chicha or blood from llama sacrifices. On the eastern and southern sides lay a swamp and pool of eerily dark water, and the entire place, in a wooded ravine, had an other-worldly atmosphere.” (Hemming pp5513).

Ukhu pacha: the world below

Paqcha: used in making liquid libations during religious performance.

Tincuy is the joining of two great waterways. It was considered a huaca.

“Ama sua, ama llulla, ama qhilla” Do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy.

View Transisition of Power-Centralization of Wanka Political Org under Inka Rule.pdf on computer.

Roal women were known as pallas (Vega 2154)

Kept in traditional roles with the highest of one hoping to achieve would be as an administrative duty in an acllahuasi, or a ruler’s house.

Agriculture and weaving were the duties that women were expected to fill, both vital to the state.

At age 10 all girls would be checked out to see if they would be kept in town or taken in and educated, or trades.

The best looking girls were sacrificed

The lower class were responsible to provide tribute cloth to the state and weaving was primarily a female duty.

·  Considering how important food and feasting was to the success of the Inca Empire, as well as female offerings, the women, specifically the acllas, were as crucial to its expansion as the men on the battlefield. (Bray 133)

·  She was the daughter of the moon

·  She was the monarch for all women (Her husband was the monarch for the men)

·  She mirrored her husband in all things,, from the size and beauty of her palaces and temples, to the rituals she performed for specifically female deities, to the feastin of imperial subjects, to the veneration of her mummified remains after death (Bray 132)

Hatchets were considered bride wealth (Salomon 92).. With it they cut firewood. 

http://kriva07.wikispaces.com/Women%27s+Role+in+Incan+Society+&+it%27s+Effect+in+US+culture

http://www2.ivcc.edu/gender2001/Incan_Women.htm

Yana-to help or serve ya- continually cu-continually (Rostw. 149)

Yanacona help positions of “servants in waiting,” wheather of the Sun, the coya, the panaca, or haucas. Also great lords (capac apos) of macroethnic groups might hold such servants. (Rostw. 149)

A yana was separated from his origins, with no ties of kinship or reciprocity with his birthplace. No need to recur to the mechanisms of reciprocity. Didn’t have to “request,” things of him, but could order it.

Bauer, Brian S. Ancient Cusco: Heartland of the Inca University of Texas Press, 2004.

Bray, Tamara L. The Archaeology and Politics of Food and Feasting in Early States and Empires. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2003.

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 https://youtu.be/Elgs4fHh284, published 2016. Accessed 2018

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